Community-level Physiological Profiling in Monitoring Rehabilitative Effects of Acacia auriculiformis Plantation on Degraded Land in Sakaerat , Thailand

This study was conducted to investigate the rehabilitative effects of planting Acacia auriculiformis trees on degraded land by observing variations in soil bacterial community profiles provided by community-level physiological profiling. Soil bacterial and physicochemical comparisons between an original evergreen forest and the Acacia plantation plot, established on an area severely degraded as a result of deforestation, showed that most soil characteristics were rehabilitated 18 to 19 years after the plantation of Acacia according to single variables, Shannon and Simpson diversity indices based on the community-level physiological profiles, principal component analysis and redundancy analysis. However, a more strict statistical comparison, discriminant analysis, completely discriminated between the Acacia plantation and the evergreen forest soils when the community-level physiological profiles were compared. Thus, the Acacia plantation soil was shown to still be in the process to full recovery. Here, we discuss the relevance of planting A. auriculiformis in land rehabilitation schemes in savanna regions.


Introduction
Deforestation has emerged as a challenge to socio-economic development in Thailand (The tenth national… 2006) as in many other countries.In the past four decades, forest areas in Thailand as a whole are estimated to have declined by 50% or more (Fisher and Hirsch 2008).In the tropics, deforestation often leads to land degradation and results in degraded soils under tropical climatic conditions (Eden and Parry 1996).Deforestation is seen as a major cause of increasingly severe problems of drought and flood (Krairapanond and Atkinson 1998).Since the late 1980s, the Thai government has been taking measures to rehabilitate the degraded lands.Reforestation is one of the rehabilitation measures, and trees have been planted on the degraded lands under a subsidy scheme of the government (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006).Because the native tree species are prone to fail to survive due to the degraded soil conditions, in the reforestation strategy, exotic plant species are often introduced to rehabilitate the degraded lands with harsh soil conditions (Ashton et al. 2001).However, the strategy is often criticized because the introduced exotic species may result in biological deserts (Wuethrich 2007).Another critical opinion is that the exotic tree species may escape to adjacent areas, threatening native species (Hartley 2002).When considering these constraints, we question whether introducing an exotic tree species is truly rehabilitative.
There has been some evidence of the rehabilitative effects of reforestation.The aboveground diversity of plant species draws attention relatively well.Surveys of the distribution of plant species following reforestation have been used to demonstrate the success or failure of the reforestation in terms of recovery of the original ecosystems (Kamo et al. 2002).In addition to the aboveground plant community structure, soil quality has also been used as an indicator of rehabilitative effects of reforestation (Young 1997).On the other hand, soil biotic changes are not well documented in investigations of the rehabilitative effects of reforestation, while the changes have been reported as responses to land degradation caused by deforestation.When soil microbes function well, the soil may support trees and other plants in the ecosystem (Beare et al. 1995).Soil bacteria, as a part of the soil microbial community, contribute to plant growth by mineral solubilization (Derylo and Skorupska 1992), nitrogen fixation (Albrecht et al. 1981) and production of plant growth hormones (Nieto and Frankenberg 1989).Therefore, an indicator of rehabilitation is the recovery of soil microbes and their functions, though they have seldom been monitored in investigations of the rehabilitative effects of reforestation.
Rehabilitative effects of reforestation are shown by comparing soils of the rehabilitated area with reforestation and the adjacent degraded land without reforestation.To compare the soils, we have used community-level physiological profiling of soil bacterial community as a method for multivariate profiling of the soils (Garland and Mills 1991).This method reveals the functional potential of the soil bacterial community through observation of the utilization pattern of different carbon sources.In this study, we profiled soils over a land degradation-rehabilitation gradient in Sakaerat, Thailand (Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi 2007).The original vegetation type of Sakaerat is dry evergreen forest.But human activities, mainly slash-and-burn cultivation, have deforested some parts of Sakaerat.Some areas were cultivated and abandoned after intensive exploitation of the soil resources, causing the ground to become bare.In some spaces, the bare ground was rehabilitated by planting Acacia auriculiformis trees (Sakai et al. 2009).Bare ground was the most degraded vegetation type, and the rehabilitated Acacia plantation plots and the dry evergreen forest represented a land degradationrehabilitation gradient.The main objective of this study was to investigate the rehabilitative effects of the Acacia plantation by profiling the gradient in a wet-to-dry seasonal change.

Site Description
This study was conducted in Sakaerat Environmental Research Station, Thailand.The details were described elsewhere (Doi andRanamukhaarachchi 2007, Doi andSakurai 2004).The annual precipitation is 1260 mm and the average temperature is 26 °C.The climate is classifi ed as savanna (Köppen 1931).The soil is originally an Orthic Acrisol, according to the FAO/UNESCO scheme (FAO/UNESCO 1979).
We compared soils of dry evergreen forest (the original vegetation), Acacia plantation and bare ground (the most degraded vegetation).These vegetation types represent a land degradationrehabilitation gradient.The vegetation types were randomly distributed.Thus, the vegetation mosaic was regarded as a completely randomized design (Fig. 1, Doi and Sakurai 2004).The numbers of replications were 7, 7 and 6 for dry evergreen forest, Acacia plantation and bare ground, respectively.All the sampling points were on slight slopes (less than 10°).
The dry evergreen forest is primarily dominated by Hopea ferrea and Shorea spp. that form the upper storey 20 to 40 m above ground.A typical dry evergreen forest contains more than 1000 trees (trunk diameter at breast height > 5 cm) ha -1 , the total basal area at 1.3 m height exceeds 30 m 2 ha -1 and the above ground biomass is over 200 tons ha -1 (Kanzaki et al. 1995).
The Acacia auriculiformis plantation plots are scattered in the area (Fig. 1).The Acacia plots were established in 1986 and 1987 in the parts that used to be subjected to slash-and-burn shifting cultivation (Kaeonium et al. 1976).In these spaces, the original vegetation had been removed and the biomass had been burned.The cleared land had been cultivated for a few years, and then abandoned when the soil quality deteriorated to the extent that could not support crop production.Some of the abandoned parts of Sakaerat had been converted to plantation plots of Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and other tree species.
A. auriculiformis was one of the introduced tree species.
The bare ground soil has been intensively deprived of nutrients and has lost conditions seen in forest soils.At these sampling points, recovery of vegetative cover did not occur since the harsh conditions for plants make the bare ground to remain so.Morphological features of bare ground can still be seen at some points in the site.For typical bare ground, the A horizon can not be recognized.The uppermost horizon is reddish brown (Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi 2007) rich in gravel, and has few roots and other plant organs/ debris.The boundary between the uppermost horizon and the deeper horizon is not clear, while the horizon deeper than 50 cm is pale orange.

Soil Sampling and Physicochemical
Profi ling Soils were sampled on Sep 25 and 26, Nov 25 and 26 and Dec 24 and 25, 2005 (Fig. 2).The sampling was done within 26 hours, in which the site had negligible precipitation (< 1 mm).At each sampling point, hundred-mL core samplers, 5 cm in diameter, were inserted from the surface to a depth of 5.1 cm.A circle, 10 m in diameter was established, and 8 soil cores were randomly taken within the circle.In addition, two other cores were randomly taken in the circle for soil moisture and bulk density measurements.The 8 soil cores were immediately placed into a single plastic bag, mixed and brought to the laboratory.For community-level physiological profiling, the moist soil was immediately passed through 2 mm sieve and was brought to the laboratory within 12 h.For soil physicochemical profiling, the soil samples were air-dried, passed through 2 mm sieve then analyzed.Physicochemical profiling of soils were performed as previously described (Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi 2007).

Community-level Physiological Profiling
The bacterial community in each composite sample was profiled with three Biolog EcoPlates as previously described (Doi 2005).Five grams of each soil sample were suspended in 45 mL of sterilized 0.85% (w/v) NaCl and reciprocally shaken at room temperature for 30 min at 120 rpm.The suspension was centrifuged at 1000 g for 5 min, decanted, and the pellet was re-suspended in 45 mL of the NaCl solution.Then, the centrifugation and suspending was repeated twice.The soil suspension was left still for a minute, and 10 mL of the uppermost section was diluted 40-fold with the NaCl solution.This suspension was used to inoculate Biolog EcoPlate at a rate of 0.1 mL/well.Oxidation of each carbon source was measured by quantifying purple color development as a result of the reduction of tetrazolium violet.The plates were incubated at 26°C in the dark and absorbance at 405 nm was read using a microplate reader (Perlong DNM-9602G, Nanjing, PR China) at 4 to 12 h intervals for 7 days.
During the incubation, the plates were wrapped in a plastic film to avoid desiccation.Values for the above mentioned three pseudo-replicates were averaged, and used for the following statistical analyses.

Data Analyses
The following analyses were performed using the statistical software, SPSS 10.0.1 (SPSS Inc.).Repeated measures analysis of variance for each of the soil physicochemical characteristics was performed.As the post-hoc test, Dunnett T3 t-test was performed to examine the significant differences between means.Community-level physiological profiles of the soils were analyzed to construct data sets for using the information.The average well color development approach (AWCD, Garland and Mills 1991) was employed as the first choice.AWCD at a particular time was calculated using the following equation.

Average well color development
where ABSit is the absorbance at 405 nm for the i-th carbon source at the time (t) and ABSct is the absorbance for the control well, including no carbon sources, at the time (t).In this study, values of AWCD for the bare ground soil samples at the convergence stage were obviously poor, then comparable to that for the forest soil samples at the exponential stage.This made it impossible to use profiles of the forest soils at their convergence stages because the color development for the bare ground soils did not reach to the color intensity that the forest soil samples manifested.Therefore, the kinetic approach proposed by Lindstrom et al. (1998) was applied.Values of AWCD in the color development were used to determine the asymptote (K) statistically.The value of parameter K was regarded as the asymptote that the value of AWCD finally reaches.The 0.5 K time point was regarded as the exponential stage (Lindstrom et al. 1998) and the 0.95 K time point as the convergence stage.This approach provided 0.5 K and 0.95 K data sets.In addition to these data sets, another data set, called area data set, was constructed (Hackett and Griffiths 1997).Then, a multivariate profile of the soil sample was obtained.A ratio-transformation was employed, i.e., each observation was divided by the sum of all the observations for the sample and used for statistical analyses.
To compare the data sets in discriminating among the soils, discriminant analysis was performed.The 31 values for each soil sample were used for discriminant analysis of the communitylevel physiological profiles.Raw soil physicochemical data were used for discriminant analysis of soil physicochemical profiles.The puttingindependents-together method was chosen.
Principal component analysis was performed to extract principal components from the data set on physicochemical profiles or the communitylevel physiological profiles.Then, the principal component scores were used for describing the land degradation-rehabilitation gradient.
It had been demonstrated that the intensity of the land degradation in Sakaerat was solely described by the first principal component derived from the physicochemical data set (Doi and Sakurai 2004).Hence, multiple regression analysis was performed to obtain a regression model for describing the land degradation-rehabilitation gradient based on the data set on the communitylevel physiological profiles.Scores on the first principal component derived from the physicochemical data set were examined if the variation has significant linear relationships with scores on principal components extracted from the data set on the community-level physiological profiles.The multiple regression analyses involved only the significant principal components having eigenvalues of 1 or greater (Kaiser 1960).The stepwise method at the default criteria (p = 0.05 for inclusion and 0.10 for removal) was chosen.
We calculated biodiversity indices based on the carbon source utilization pattern by the soil bacterial community (Staddon et al. 1997).Shannon diversity, Shannon evenness and Simpson indices were calculated.The Shannon diversity and evenness indices indicate diversity and evenness of distribution pattern of the community, while the Simpson index indicates dominance by a particular portion of the community (Staddon et al. 1997).Repeated measures analysis of variance was performed for analyzation, determination and comparison of sources of variations of the diversity indices.Dunnett T3 t-test was chosen as the post-hoc t-test.
CANOCO for Windows 4.02 and CanoDraw 3.10 (Microcomputer Power, NY) were used for redundancy analysis of the relationships among the soil physicochemical variables, the soil bacterial community profiles and the values of Shannon diversity index (ter Braak and Šmilauer 1998).The sampling dates were used as the co-variable to take the temporal changes into account.

Results
The climatic conditions are summarized in Fig. 2. The site had heavy precipitation in September and October, but received less water in November and December, resulting in a wet-to-dry transition.
Most soil physicochemical variables reflected the degradative/rehabilitative effects significantly (Table 1, p < 0.05).The land degradation was explained by high values of bulk density and exchangeable acidity (Al, H), and the low values of moisture content, pH, organic matter content, basic cation contents (K, Ca, Mg), and available phosphorus.The values for the Acacia plantation soil were not significantly different from those for the evergreen forest soil, except for the bulk density value in September.The bare ground soil was shown to be significantly poorer than the other soils in some soil physicochemical variables.Acacia plantation soil showed rehabilitative effects of the plantation on the degraded soil.The effects of the wet-to-dry seasonal change were pronounced as changes in soil moisture content, bulk density, and pH.
Fig. 3 shows community-level physiological profiles of the soils.Some significant differences were found between the vegetation types.The bare ground soil was significantly different from the others, but there were fewer cases in which the means for the Acacia plantation and the evergreen forest were differentiated at a significance level of p = 0.05.These results again indicate that the soil of the Acacia plantation plot was progressively recovering the original community-level physiological profile.To extend the use of the data, multivariate analyses were performed.
Table 2 indicates the results of principal component analysis.Regarding variation in scores on the first principal component extracted from the overall physicochemical data set, vegetation type was a significant source (p = 0.001), but the sampling time (p = 0.908) and the interaction (p = 0.798) were not.Thus, the first principal component was confirmed to be a measure of the intensity of land degradation in Sakaerat (Doi and Sakurai 2004).The bacterial data sets provided larger numbers of significant principal components (eigenvalue > 1) than the physicochemical data set.For the overall data sets on the community-level physiological profiles, repeated measures analyses of variance were performed to determine the principal components explaining the seasonal change.When sampling time was examined as a source of the variation, the principal components having the smallest p values were the fifth (0.5 K), the eighth (0.95 K), and the third (Area).Thus, seasonality was found to be a minor source of the variation.
Fig. 4 summarizes the regression models that describe the land degradation-rehabilitation gradient.These models show that the first bacterial principal components had significant linear relationships with the land degradation-rehabilitation gradient.The soil sample groups of the evergreen forest and the Acacia plantation overlap while the bare ground samples are separated in the diagrams.It was indicated that the soil of the Acacia plantation plot was recovering the original physiological functions.
The discriminant analyses of the bacterial data sets properly classified all the soil sample groups in all three sampling times and resulted in no misclassification.On the other hand, discriminant analysis of the physicochemical data sets resulted in two cases of misclassification: an Acacia sample was misclassified as an evergreen forest sample in September and November, respectively.Hence, the bacterial data sets enabled discrimination among the soils at least as well as the physicochemical data set.
Analysis of the biodiversity indices revealed significant sources of the variation (Table 3).Sampling time and vegetation type were significant (p < 0.003) for all the data sets and all the indices.No significant interactions between these sources of variation were recognized (p > 0.212); consistent variation patterns among the sampling times or the vegetation types were seen.For example, the diversity indices tended to be greater in September and smaller in December.The bacterial community in the evergreen forest soil tended to have the highest functional diversity, and that in the bare ground soil had the poorest.In most comparisons, the diversity indices of the soil bacterial community of the evergreen forest were not significantly different from those of the Acacia plot.Therefore, it was again shown that the soil of the Acacia plot was increasing in similarity to that of the evergreen forest during the rehabilitation period.This was indicated by recovering values of average well color development as well.29.3 20.9 12.0 9.0 7.5 5.1 3.9 2.6 0.95 K Eigenvalue 11.3 4.9 3.3 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.1 Variation explained (%) 36.4 15.9 10.8 6.7 6.4 5.2 4.7 3.6 Area Eigenvalue 13.2 5.5 3.9 2.4 1.7 1.0 0. 46.4 12.6 7.3 6.9 6.4 4.6 3.4 2.7 Physicochemical Eigenvalue 5.8 2.2 1.9 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 Variation explained (%) 48.3 18.3 15.9 7.6 3.8 2.6 1.7 0.9 December 0.5 K Eigenvalue 12.1 5.3 3.3 2.1 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.9 Variation explained (%) 39.0 17.0 10.5 6.7 4.9 3.8 3.5 2.8 0.95 K Eigenvalue 14.2 4.0 3.1 2.1 1.4 1.2 1.2 0.8 Variation explained (%) 45.8 13.0 9.9 6.7 4.7 3.8 3.7 2.5 Area Eigenvalue 16.4 4.4 2.4 1.7 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6 Variation explained (%) 52.9 14.2 7.8 5.6 3.8 3.2 2.8 1.9 Physicochemical Eigenvalue 6.1 2.5 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 Variation explained (%) 50.8 20.7 12.4 5.4 4.2 2.9 1.6 1.0 September, 0.5 K Eigenvalue 7.0 6.1 3.1 1.9 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.0 November, Variation explained (%) 22.6 19.5 9.9 6.1 5.2 4.3 3.6 3.4 and 0.95 K Eigenvalue 9.2 4.8 2.8 2.4 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.0 December Variation explained (%) 29.6 15.5 9.0 7.7 5.4 4.5 3.7 3.5 Area Eigenvalue 10.7 5.7 2.8 2.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.8 Variation explained (%) 34.5 18.5 9.0 7.7 4.2 3.6 3.3 2.7 Physicochemical Eigenvalue 5.3 2.1 1.5 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.2 Variation explained (%) 43.8 17.7 12.7 7.4 5.9 4.8 3.1 1.9 * The underlined figures indicate that the principal component is significant according to the Keiser's criterion (eigenvalue ≥ 1, Keiser 1960).By direct gradient analyses, the fi rst and second axes were extracted to explore the relationships between the values of the Shannon diversity index and soil environmental gradients.The fi rst axes extracted by redundancy analysis had eigenvalues of 0.159 to 0.197 (Fig. 5).The spatial variation in soil moisture content was the most signifi cant soil environmental gradient related to the Shannon diversity index and soil bacterial community profi les.Fig. 5 shows similarity between the bacterial communities in the Acacia plantation and the evergreen forest soils.Again, the bare ground soil bacterial community was clearly different from the others.In addition to moisture content, bulk density, pH and/or organic matter content were signifi cant soil environmental gra-dients related to the variation in the communitylevel physiological profi les.In other words, the community-level physiological profi le of the bare ground soil, having the lowest functional diversity in Sakaerat, appeared when the soil became drier, more acidic, heavier, and/or more barren because of human activities.

Discussion
Besides its high adaptability in degraded savanna areas (Badejo 1998), A. auriculiformis is known for its nitrogen-fi xation property (Sprent and Parsons 2000), enriching macrofaunal composition ( Mboukou-Kimbatsa et al. 1998), low allelopathic effects (Bernhard-Reversat 1999), and pumping nutrients from the subsoil (Kang 1993).Such rehabilitative effects were also seen in our study as the above results.The Acacia plantation soil had largely recovered the original conditions and bacterial functions seen in the evergreen forest soil.At the same time, in the study period in 2005, the A. auriculiformis plantation soil seemed to still be recovering the original characteristics of the evergreen forest.This was especially indicated by the results of discriminant analysis which still clearly discriminated between the bacterial community profi les of the evergreen forest and the Acacia plantation soils.A possible explanation is that slight physicochemical soil changes (p > 0.10) may signifi cantly affect soil biotic variables, such as soil enzyme activity (Jha et al. 1992) and/or soil bacterial com-munity structure (Doi and Sakurai 2003).Hence, the observed signifi cant differences between the soil bacterial communities may be results of the amplifi cation of physicochemical differences between the soils of the Acacia plot and the evergreen forest.Soil physicochemical changes have been observed relatively more often in association with land rehabilitation involving reforestation.Recently, some surveys have reported recovery of single soil biotic variables following reforestation (Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi 2009;Ren et al. 2007;Lee et al. 2006).In comparison with observation of single biotic variables, multivariate profi ling of soil bacterial communities may offer more chances to fi nd differences in soil quality.
In Sakaerat, protecting the plantation plot from fi re seems to be important for succession (Sahunalu and Dhanmanonda 1995).The A. auriculiformis plantation soil was concluded to have already been rehabilitated beyond the soil of the dry deciduous forest (Fig. 1) disturbed by human activities, mainly frequent running fire (Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi 2007).In North American forests, fire can accelerate succession if the dominant species are burnt and then opportunities for growth are given to suppressed native tree species (Abrams and Scott 1989).On the other hand, in a case study in Japan, fire set back succession of secondary forest dominated by Japanese red pine trees to an early stage, while pine wilt enhanced succession by promoting the growth of previously suppressed oak trees (Fujihara 1996).In Sakaerat, strong solar radiation, thus higher temperature, in addition to soil dryness (Fig. 5), was indicated to stress the native evergreen tree species (Fig. 5, Sakurai et al. 1998;Stott 1984).Recovery of moister soil and cooler microsite conditions by canopy development would be required for succession (Ren et al. 2007) while fire would destroy the chances for the native tree species, as well as the biotic life in the soil, to recover.Once A. auriculiformis plantation establishes a canopy, self-thinning favors succession (Ashton et al. 2001).In 1998, among 6 tree species introduced to the Sakaerat Environmental Research Station, the A. auriculiformis plantation recorded the second highest species richness of plants (51), following the Dalbergia cochinchinensis plantation, which scored a species richness of 59, when the evergreen forest had 114 species (Kamo et al. 2002).We observed many tree species in the A. auriculiformis plots on the sampling days in 2005.This perceivable progress in succession is thought to contribute to the relative proximity of the A. auriculiformis plantation soil to the evergreen forest soil.Increasing plant community diversity can help enrich soil fertility (El-Keblawy and Ksiksi 2005) and establish the soil ecological structure (Beare et al. 1995) formed by plant roots and root exudates (Garland 1996) on which soil animals and microbes rely.These processes involved in succession were likely recovering the soil functions observed in this study.
On the other hand, we are sure that the Acacia plantation plots will require several more years to fully recover the original soil quality so there are no recognizable differences from the evergreen forest soil by discriminant analysis (Young 1997).Yemefack et al. (2005) recognized incomplete soil fertility recovery in a comparable rehabilitation period of 15 years after shifting cultivation in Cameroon.In the southern Yucatan peninsula of Mexico, under similar climatic conditions, 40-60 years was estimated for recovery of total aboveground biomass following shifting cultivation, based on the most optimistic estimate (Chazdon 2003).Thus, the A. auriculiformis plantation soil and the ecosystem were very likely to be in succession toward the climax.Therefore, even when we see similarity in multivariate profiles between soils of reforestation plots and original forest, we need to keep in mind criteria such as discriminant analysis and statistics (Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi 2007).
The fitness of introduced exotic tree species is site-specific (Ehrenfeld 2003).In the region, A. auriculiformis plantation looks suitable to invest for the environment, thus, in turn the society and the economy.In Sakaerat, the fitness of A. auriculiformis was higher than Eucalyptus camaldulensis and , and thinning in the A. auriculiformis plot encouraged growth of a native evergreen forest species, Hopea odorata (Sakai et al. 2009).A similar case of accelerated succession by thinning in an A. auriculiformis stand in Vietnam was reported by McNamara et al. (2006).In cases when the labor force for forest management is limited (Nawir et al. 2007), self-thinning is an option.Therefore, Acacia monoculture appeals as an alternative for rehabilitation of degraded lands in savanna regions (Lugo 1997).

Fig. 1 .
Fig. 1.The vegetation types of the Sakaerat Environmental Research Station and the sampling points.DDF and DEF indicate dry deciduous forest and dry evergreen forest, respectively.

Fig. 2 .
Fig. 2. Changes in temperature and precipitation during the research period.

Fig. 3 .
Fig. 3. Community-level physiological profiles of the soil bacterial communities of the bare ground (solid bar), the Acacia plantation (open bar), and the evergreen forest (gray bar) in each month and for each data set.The means indexed by different letters differ significantly at p = 0.05 according to the Dunnett T3 t-test.The means without indexing letters indicate no significant differences among the vegetation types.The error bar indicates the standard deviation.(n = 6, bare ground; n = 7, Acacia plantation and evergreen forest) utilization=Absorbance value for the i-th carbon source/Σ[absorbance value for carbon source] ab Table 3.Values of the biodiversity indices for the soil bacterial communities of the vegetation types and the descriptive statistics at each sampling time based on community-level physiological profiling.

Fig. 4 .
Fig. 4. Regression models describing the land degradation-rehabilitation gradient shown as the variations of score on the fi rst principal components derived from the physicochemical data sets.For each month, the solid diamond, the open circle and the gray triangle indicate bare ground, Acacia plantation and evergreen forest, respectively.The formulae along the horizontal axes were provided by the multiple regression analysis.PCi indicates the score on the i-th principal component for the soil sample.The p value following the R value indicates the signifi cance of the regression model.For the overall data sets, the diamond, the circle and the triangle indicate bare ground, Acacia plantation and evergreen forest, respectively.The solid, the gray and the open symbols indicate the soil samples taken in September, November and December, respectively.

Fig. 5 .
Fig. 5. Redundancy analysis ordination diagrams indicating (1) scores on the ordination axes for the soil samples (top); and (2) changes in functional diversity of soil bacterial community in the ordination plane (bottom).For the top fi gures, the solid diamond, the open circle and the gray triangle indicate bare ground, Acacia plantation and evergreen forest, respectively.For the bottom fi gures, the solid and the dotted contour lines indicate interpolation and extrapolation, respectively.

Table 1 .
Soil physicochemical characteristics and results of repeated measures analysis of variance.
* BG, Acacia, and DEF in the mean separation columns indicate bare ground, Acacia plantation and dry evergreen forest, respectively, for each month and each soil physicochemical characteristic.**CEC, cation exchange capacity.†The means indexed by the same letter do not differ significantly at p = 0.05 according to the Dunnett T3 t-test.

Table 2 .
Structures of the data sets.
For each month and each diversity index, the means indexed by the same small letter do not differ significantly among the vegetation types at p = 0.05 according to the Dunnett T3 t-test.For each index and each vegetation type, the means indexed by the same capital letter do not differ significantly among the sampling times at p = 0.05 according to the t-test. * . 2006.National Economic and Social Development Board of Thailand, Office of the Prime Minister, Bangkok.Wuethrich, B. 2007.Reconstructing Brazil's Atlantic rainforest.Science 315(5815): 1070-1072.Yemefack, M., Rossiter, D.G. & Njomgang, R. 2005.Multi-scale characterization of soil variability within an agricultural landscape mosaic system in southern Cameroon.Geoderma 125(1-2): 117-143.Young, A. 1997.Agroforestry for soil management.2nd ed.CAB International and ICRAF, New York Total of 52 references