Fig. 1. The general three phase planning process described by Simon (1960) that was adapted to and used in the case study of Linköping.
Fig. 2. Objective hierarchy for the case study stated by the municipality’s forest manager and the ecologist alongside the statements in the municipality’s general forest policy.
| Table 1. A description of the objectives considered when drawing up the objective hierarchy. | |
| Objective | Description |
| Net income (SEK) | The net income from forestry measured in Swedish Crowns (SEK). In Heureka, the net income was defined as revenues minus costs. |
| Harvested volume (m3/ha and year) | The volume of harvested wood. If harvest levels are relatively even over time, there will be a even flow of wood for industrial uses, the forest will produce an even income, and the age distribution of its trees will be relatively even over time. In Heureka, the harvested volume was defined as the total harvested volume, which includes wood obtained from final fellings, thinnings, selective fellings and fellings of shelterwood and seed trees. |
| Treated area (ha and year) | The area undergoing harvesting, i.e., final felling or thinning, or any silvicultural treatment, e.g., cleaning, fertilization, soil preparation or planting. If a large area is to be treated in a given period, this may require more time or resources than are available. In Heureka, the treated area was defined as the sum of the total harvested area and the area to which any silvicultural treatments were being applied. |
| Average growth (m3/ha and year) | The average annual growth for the landscape considered. A high and even growth indicates that the forest is being optimally and sustainably managed. In Heureka, the average growth was defined as the annual gross growth, i.e., natural mortality was accounted for. |
| Area oak forest (ha) | The presence of oak forests can increase biodiversity at both the stand and the landscape level, since many rare species depend on oaks. In Heureka, the area of oak forest was defined as the area of forest in which oaks accounted for more than 25% of the standing wood volume. |
| Area old forest (ha) | Old forests are becoming increasingly rare, but they are important for biodiversity because many species rely on them. In Heureka, the area of old forest was defined as the area of forest older than 90 years. |
| Volume large broadleaves (m3/ha) | Large broadleaved trees are becoming rare and are important for biodiversity because many species are dependent on old and large broadleaves. In Heureka, the volume of large broadleaves was defined as the volume of broadleaves with a diameter greater than 25 cm (at 1.3 m from the ground). |
| Volume broadleaves (m3/ha) | Broadleaves in general are important for biodiversity since many species are dependent on them. In Heureka, the broadleaf volume was defined as the total volume of all broadleaved tree species. |
| Volume dead wood (m3/ha) | Dead wood is important for biodiversity because many species depend on its presence. In Heureka, the dead wood volume was defined as the volume of raw and hard dead wood, i.e., dead wood belonging to decay classes 0 and 1 (in Heureka) or hard dead wood according to the definition used in the Swedish National Forest Inventory (SLU, 2012). |
| Clearcut area (ha) | Clearcut areas are areas where final felling recently has been performed and a new forest has not yet been established. In Heureka, the clearcut area was defined as the sum of the area allocated for final felling and the area of forest younger than 5 years. |
| Area sparse forest (ha) | Sparse forest is the typical recreational forest – it is quite light and has good visibility. In Heureka, sparsely forested areas were defined as forest sites with trees heights above 10 m and fewer than 1000 stems per ha. |
| Variation in tree species (share of coniferous trees) | Variation in tree species may increase the recreational value of the forest. Spruce and pine are the most common tree species in Swedish forests, so the relative abundance of coniferous trees was used as a proxy for tree species variation. In Heureka, the variation in tree species was defined as the proportion of the total wood volume in each stand from coniferous species. |
| Variation in age (years) | Old forests have a high recreational value, but variation in tree age can also increase a forest’s recreational value by creating variation at the landscape level. In Heureka, the variation in age was defined as the standard deviation in the total age of the forest (expressed as a percentage of the average age). |
| Table 2. The outcome for the three scenarios in terms of the mean value for each objective over the entire 100 year horizon of the simulation. | |||
| A | B | C | |
| Net income (SEK) | 1 861 512 | 1 313 356 | 1 672 569 |
| Harvested volume (m3/ha and year) | 3.52 | 2.46 | 3.11 |
| Treated area (ha and year) | 111.37 | 86.90 | 102.08 |
| Average growth (m3/ha and year) | 4.88 | 3.89 | 4.48 |
| Area oak forest (ha) | 372.85 | 437.50 | 389.83 |
| Area old forest (ha) | 1022.26 | 1453.13 | 1195.49 |
| Volume large broadleaves (m3/ha) | 51.46 | 63.25 | 57.59 |
| Volume broadleaves (m3/ha) | 70.18 | 83.65 | 78.14 |
| Volume dead wood (m3/ha) | 6.52 | 7.28 | 6.89 |
| Clearcut area (ha) | 52.71 | 0.26 | 25.94 |
| Area sparse forest (ha) | 1399.03 | 1890.81 | 1641.39 |
| Variation in tree species | 34.6% | 35.3% | 34.8% |
| Variation in age | 35.82 | 29.55 | 32.27 |
Fig. 3. Overall ranking of the three scenarios for the municipality of Linköping.
Fig. 4. Ranking of the three scenarios for the municipality of Linköping from a) the economic perspective, b) the ecological perspective and c) the social perspective.
Fig. 5. Ranking of a) the economic objectives, b) the ecological objectives and c) the social objectives.