Fig. 1. Illustration of the multiple uses of forest roads in Sweden encompassing forestry transportation, firefighting, and public access to the forest and its benefits. Left panel: timber awaiting transportation (top), forest road providing access to a house (middle), and horse riding on a forest road (bottom). Right panel: burnt forest one year after a severe wildfire (firefighting) (top), hunting tower by a forest road (middle), and a berry-picking site (bottom). Photos by E. Ring and M. Wallgren.

Fig. 2. Illustration of some of the ecological and environmental factors that can be affected by forest roads, including wildlife, plants and insects, hydrology, and reindeer. Left panel: capercaillie on a forest road (top), flowering plants in a road verge (middle), a bee pollinating maple flowers (bottom). Right panel: roadside ditch draining water (top), road culvert beneath a forest road (middle), and reindeer moving along a forest road (bottom). Photos by E. Ring, L. Djupström, M. Wallgren.

Fig. 3. Schematic design of a forest road running across a gentle hillslope. Forest roads are constructed to prevent water from accumulating in the road. The travel way is compacted to divert precipitation to roadside ditches, which also collect and transport water coming from the cut slope. Drainpipes transport water from upslope areas across the road.

Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of pathways to potential ecological, environmental, social, and economic impacts of forest roads in Sweden. The outer circle (dashed line) represents the interactions between different factors. The illustration focuses on the topics of this study.