Articles by Miina Rautiainen

• Kuusinen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8063-1739 E-mail: nea.kuusinen@aalto.fi
• Hovi, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
• Rautiainen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

Despite the importance of spectral properties of woody tree structures, they are seldom represented in research related to forests, remote sensing, and reflectance modeling. This study presents a novel imaging multiangular measurement set-up that utilizes a mobile handheld hyperspectral camera (Specim IQ, 400–1000 nm), and can measure stem bark spectra in a controlled laboratory setting. We measured multiangular reflectance spectra of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stem bark, and demonstrated the potential of using bark spectra in identifying tree species using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) based approach. Intraspecific reflectance variability was the lowest in visible (400–700 nm), and the highest in near-infrared (700–1000 nm) wavelength regions. Interspecific variation was the largest in the red, red-edge and near-infrared spectral bands. Spatial variation of reflectance along the tree height and different sides of the stem (north and south) were found. Both birch and pine had increased reflectance in the forward-scattering directions for visible to near-infrared wavelength regions, whilst spruce displayed the same only for the visible wavelength region. In addition, spruce had increased reflectance in the backward-scattering directions. In spite of the intraspecific variations, SVM could identify tree species with 88.8% overall accuracy when using pixel-specific spectra, and with 97.2% overall accuracy when using mean spectra per image. Based on our results it is possible to identify common boreal tree species based on their stem bark spectra using images from mobile hyperspectral cameras.

• Juola, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6050-7247 E-mail: jussi.juola@aalto.fi
• Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
• Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

Leaf reflectance and transmittance spectra are essential information in many applications such as developing remote sensing methods, computing shortwave energy balance (albedo) of forest canopies, and monitoring health or stress of trees. Measurement of coniferous needle spectra has usually been carried out with single integrating spheres, which has involved a lot of tedious manual work. A small double integrating sphere would make the measurements considerably faster, because of its ease of operation and small sample sizes required. Here we applied a compact double integrating sphere setup, used previously for measurement of broad leaves, for measurement of coniferous needles. Test measurements with the double integrating sphere showed relative underestimation of needle albedo by 5–39% compared to a well-established single integrating sphere setup. A small part of the bias can be explained by the bias of the single sphere. Yet the observed bias is quite significant if absolute accuracy of measurements is required. For relative measurements, e.g. for monitoring development of needle spectra over time, the double sphere system provides notable improvement. Furthermore, it might be possible to reduce the bias by building an optimized measurement setup that minimizes absorption losses in the sample port. Our study indicates that double spheres, after some technical improvement, may provide a new and fast way to collect extensive spectral libraries of tree species.

• Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O.Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
• Mõttus, VTT Technical Research Centre Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2745-1966 E-mail: matti.mottus@gmail.com
• Juola, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O.Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland E-mail: jussi.juola@aalto.fi
• Manoocheri, Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Metrology Research Institute, Maarintie 8, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3935-3930 E-mail: farshid.manoocheri@aalto.fi
• Ikonen, VTT Technical Research Centre Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Metrology Research Institute, Maarintie 8, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6444-5330 E-mail: erkki.ikonen@aalto.fi
• Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O.Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

Accurate mapping of the spatial distribution of understory species from spectral images requires ground reference data which represent the prevailing phenological stage at the time of image acquisition. We measured the spectral bidirectional reflectance factors (BRFs, 350–2500 nm) at varying view angles for lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) and blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) throughout the growing season of 2017 using Finnish Geospatial Research Institute’s FIGIFIGO field goniometer. Additionally, we measured spectra of leaves and berries of both species, and flowers of lingonberry. Both lingonberry and blueberry showed seasonality in visible and near-infrared spectral regions which was linked to occurrences of leaf growth, flowering, berrying, and leaf senescence. The seasonality of spectra differed between species due to different phenologies (evergreen vs. deciduous). Vegetation indices, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), moisture stress index (MSI), plant senescence reflectance index (PSRI), and red-edge inflection point (REIP2), showed characteristic seasonal trends. NDVI and PSRI were sensitive to the presence of flowers and berries of lingonberry, while with blueberry the effects were less evident. Off-nadir observations supported differentiating the dwarf shrub species from each other but showed little improvement for detection of flowers and berries. Lingonberry and blueberry can be identified by their spectral signatures if ground reference data are available over the entire growing season. The spectral data measured in this study are reposited in the publicly open SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.

• Forsström, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2357-2517 E-mail: petri.forsstrom@aalto.fi
• Peltoniemi, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Department of Geodesy and Geodynamics, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430 Masala, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4701-128X E-mail: jouni.peltoniemi@nls.fi
• Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

Spectral libraries have a fundamental role in the development of interpretation methods for airborne and satellite-borne remote sensing data. This paper presents to-date the largest spectral measurement campaign of boreal tree species. Reflectance and transmittance spectra of over 600 leaf and needle samples from 25 species were measured in the Helsinki area (Finland) using integrating sphere systems attached to an ASD FieldSpec 4 spectroradiometer. Factors influencing the spectra and red edge inflection point (REIP) were quantified using one-way analysis of variance. Tree species differed most in the shortwave-infrared (1500–2500 nm) and least in the visible (400–700 nm) wavelength region. Species belonging to same genera showed similar spectral characteristics. Upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) leaf sides differed most in the visible region. Canopy position (sunlit/shaded) had a minor role in explaining spectral variation. For evergreen conifers, current and previous year needles differed in their spectra, current-year needles resembling those of broadleaved and deciduous conifers. Two broadleaved species were monitored throughout the growing season (May–October), and two conifers were measured twice during summer (June, September). Rapid changes were observed in the spectra in early spring and late autumn, whereas seasonal variations during summer months were relatively small for both broadleaved and coniferous species. Based on our results, shortwave-infrared seems promising in separating tree species, although it is to-date least studied. The spectral library reported here (Version 1.0) is publicly available through the SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.

• Hovi, Aalto University, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
• Raitio, Aalto University, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: pekka.raitio@aalto.fi
• Rautiainen, Aalto University, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

• Rautiainen, Tartu Observatory, 61602 Tõravere, Estonia, and Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: miina.rautiainen@helsinki.fi
• Mõttus, Tartu Observatory, 61602 Tõravere, Estonia E-mail: mm@nn.ee
• Stenberg, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
• Ervasti, City of Vantaa, Land Use and Environment / Green Area Unit, Kielotie 13, FI-01300 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: se@nn.fi

• Korhonen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@joensuu.fi
• Korhonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
• Stenberg, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Resource Management, P.O. BOX 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
• Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
• Rautiainen, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Resource Management, P.O. BOX 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi

• Korhonen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@joensuu.fi
• Korhonen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
• Rautiainen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
• Stenberg, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi

• Stenberg, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pauline.stenberg@helsinki.fi
• Rautiainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
• Manninen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Meteorological research, Ozone and UV radiation research, P.O. Box 503, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tm@nn.fi
• Voipio, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: pv@nn.fi
• Smolander, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi

Foliage spectra form an important input to physically-based forest reflectance models. However, little is known about geographical variability of coniferous needle spectra. In this research note, we present an assessment of the geographical variability of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) needle albedo, reflectance, and transmittance spectra across three study sites covering latitudes of 49–62°N in Europe. All spectra were measured and processed using exactly the same methodology and parameters, which guarantees reliable conclusions about geographical variability. Small geographical variability in Norway spruce needle spectra was observed, when compared to variability observed between previous measurement campaigns (employing slightly varying measurement and processing parameters), or to variability between plant functional types (broadleaved vs. coniferous). Our results suggest that variability of needle spectra is not a major factor introducing geographical variability to forest reflectance. The results also highlight the importance of harmonizing measurement protocols when collecting needle spectral libraries. Furthermore, the data collected for this study can be useful in studies where accurate information on spectral differences between broadleaved and coniferous tree foliage is needed.

• Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
• Lukeš, Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Bělidla 986/4a, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3707-6557 E-mail: lukes.p@czechglobe.cz
• Homolová, Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Bělidla 986/4a, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7455-2834 E-mail: homolova.l@czechglobe.cz
• Juola, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6050-7247 E-mail: jussi.juola@aalto.fi
• Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

Spectral mixture analysis was used to estimate the contribution of woody elements to tree level reflectance from airborne hyperspectral data in boreal forest stands in Finland. Knowledge of the contribution of woody elements to tree or forest reflectance is important in the context of lea area index (LAI) estimation and, e.g., in the estimation of defoliation due to insect outbreaks, from remote sensing data. Field measurements from four Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), five Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and four birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) dominated plots, spectral measurements of needles, leaves, bark, and forest floor, airborne hyperspectral as well as airborne laser scanning data were used together with a physically-based forest reflectance model. We compared the results based on simple linear combinations of measured bark and needle/leaf spectra to those obtained by accounting for multiple scattering of radiation within the canopy using a physically-based forest reflectance model. The contribution of forest floor to reflectance was additionally considered. The resulted mean woody element contribution estimates varied from 0.140 to 0.186 for Scots pine, from 0.116 to 0.196 for birches and from 0.090 to 0.095 for Norway spruce, depending on the model used. The contribution of woody elements to tree reflectance had a weak connection to plot level forest variables.

• Kuusinen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: nea.kuusinen@aalto.fi
• Hovi, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
• Rautiainen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) provides a unique opportunity to study forest canopy structure and its spatial patterns such as foliage quantity and dispersal. Using TLS point clouds for estimating leaf area density with voxel-based methods is biased by the physical dimensions of laser beams, which violates the common assumption of beams being infinitely thin. Real laser beams have a footprint size larger than several millimeters. This leads to difficulties in estimating leaf area density from light detection and ranging (LiDAR) in vegetation, where the target objects can be of similar or even smaller size than the beam footprint. To compensate for this bias, we propose a method to estimate the per-pulse cover fraction, defined as the fraction of laser beams’ footprint area that is covered by vegetation targets, using the LiDAR return intensity and an experimental calibration measurement. We applied this method to a Leica P40 single-return instrument, and report our experimental results. We found that conifer foliage had a lower average per-pulse cover fraction than broadleaved foliage, indicating an increased number of partial hits in conifer foliage. We further discuss limitations of our method that stem from unknown target properties that influence the LiDAR return intensity and highlight potential ways to overcome the limitations and manage the remaining uncertainty. Our method’s output, the per-beam cover fraction, may be useful in a weight function for methods that estimate leaf area density from LiDAR point clouds.

• Schraik, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7794-3918 E-mail: daniel.schraik@aalto.fi
• Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
• Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi

• Rautiainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: miina.rautiainen@helsinki.fi
• Stenberg, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
• Nilson, Tartu Observatory, EE-61602 Tõravere, Tartumaa, Estonia E-mail: tn@nn.ee