Current issue: 58(5)
Silva Fennica vol. 24 | 1990
Category : Article
This article is a book review on a book ‘The problems of Forest-based Development as Illustrated by the Development Discussion’ by Jussi Raumolin, concentrating on the development of forestry.
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Leikola,
E-mail:
ml@mm.unknown
The effects of plantation characteristics on moose (Alces alces) browsing intensity was studied in 82 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations in Southern Finland. Moose browsing occurred most commonly in plantations established on relatively fertile soil, and the degree of damage was at highest in plantations with openings. A high amount of brush, especially aspen, increased the risk of damage. Furthermore, damage was intensified in plantations situated on hills, slopes or at a long distance from main roads or settlements.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Heikkilä,
E-mail:
rh@mm.unknown
The relationships between bud dormancy and frost hardiness were examined using two-year-old Pinus sylvestris L. seedlings. The chilling temperatures used were +4 and -2°C. To examine the dormancy release of the seedlings, a forcing technique was used. Frost hardiness was determined by artificial freezing treatments and measurements of electrical impedance. At the start of the experiment, the frost hardiness of the seedlings was about -25°C. After the rest break, the seedlings kept at +4°C dehardened until after eight weeks their frost hardiness reached -5°C. At the lower chilling temperature (-2°C) the frost hardiness remained at the original level. When moved from +4 to -2°C, seedlings were able to reharden only after the time required for bud burst in the forcing conditions had reached the minimum.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish
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Valkonen,
E-mail:
mv@mm.unknown
- Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
- Pelkonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
- Repo, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown
Effect of dolomite lime and wood ash (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 kg m-3) on the chemical composition of low humified Sphagnum peat was studied. Germination of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and the subsequent growth of these seedlings were investigated in a greenhouse experiment. Nutrient concentrations in shoots and roots of pine seedlings were also analysed. The pH of peat increased asymptotically from 3.8 to about 7.0 with increasing lime regimen and to about 8.0 with increasing ash regimen. Wood ash linearly increased electrical conductivity and P, K, and Ca concentrations of peat. Rate of germination, within 7 days, of pine and spruce was best at low pH (<5) while birch seeds had a slightly higher pH optimum (4–6). Germination capacity, within 21 days, was not affected by pH or application regimen of either lime or ash. Pine and spruce seedlings grew best with lime and ash doses of 0.5–2.0 kg m-3, the pH of peat being 4–5. Lime and ash treatments did not affect the growth of birch seedlings, but wood ash increased nutrient concentration of pine seedlings.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Rikala,
E-mail:
rr@mm.unknown
- Jozefek, E-mail: hj@mm.unknown
Coniferous timber imported by rail from the Soviet Union in Finland was studied for the presence of potential forest and timber pest beetles. Systematic samples of fourteen lots of pine pulpwood were examined. Seven of the lots originated from the European parts of the Soviet Union and seven from Siberia. 23 species of Scolytidae and about 18 other phloeophagous species were found including three species new for Finland: Phaenops guttulata (Buprestidae), Ips subelongatus and Orthotomicus erosus (Scolytidae).
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Siitonen,
E-mail:
js@mm.unknown
Shoot elongation of Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon was studied using 2-year old grafts in a clonal seed orchard of the Pine Improvement Centre, located at the Huey Bong Experimental Station near Chiangmai, Thailand (19° 17’ N, 99° 15’ E, 900 m a.s.l.).
The seed orchard had a completely randomized block design with 30 blocks and 80 single-tree plots (clones) in each block. Eleven clones in four blocks were selected out of the total of 80 grafts (clones). From each graft, three lateral branches at the height of 1.6 m from the ground level were selected. Thus, total of 109 branches were measured. Shoot length of branches was measured between July 3, 1983 and March 11, 1984 at approximately bi-weekly intervals. Method of classical growth analysis were used in describing the shoot growth.
The annual shoot growth pattern of P. kesiya exhibited two consecutive sigmoid growth curves, i.e. it consisted of two flushes of shoot elongation, both formed by free growth. Thus, the pattern of shoot growth resembled the caribaea pattern. However, the annual shoot was composed of summer and winter shoots. These could be distinguished from each other by the reproductive organs, which always occur on winter shoot. The shoot contributed 61% of the total annual shoot length.
There were significant differences in the pattern of shoot elongation between the studied clones, which may reflect differences in the adaptation to different environmental conditions.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Sirikul,
E-mail:
ws@mm.unknown
- Kanninen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
Five ploughed research areas from Finnish Norther Karelia were selected for comparison studies of plough ridges and untouched soil. Measurements were made at a depth of 10 cm in sample plots on both mineral and paludified mineral soil and peatland parts of these areas. In summer 1987 daily soil water matric potential was measured using tensiometers, and volumetric soil moisture content and density were determined from soil samples at two dates during the summer. Water characteristics of the core samples were also determined. On paludified mineral and peat soils the water table depth from the soil surface was measured.
The results indicated that in plough ridges matric potential was lowest. Plough ridges were also seen to dry and wet faster and to a greater degree than untouched soils. In untouched soils, soil water relations and aeration were not affected by the distance to the furrow. The effect of the plough ridge was smallest on peatland, where there was a good capillary connection from plough ridge to the ground water, if the ditches were not very effective. The soil in the ridges did not dry too much to restrict seedling growth. The untouched surface soil in poorly drained peat and paludified minear soil was, at least in a rainy growing season, often and also for long times so wet that 10% minimum air space required for good seedling root growth was not available.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Mannerkoski,
E-mail:
hm@mm.unknown
- Möttönen, E-mail: vm@mm.unknown
Four dispersal stages of the nematode Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) were surveyed in Finland during the summers 1989 and 1990 examining field collected conifer beetle (Coleopterea) adults of the following species: Monochamus sutor, M. galloprovincialis, Acanthocinus aedilis, Rhagium inquisitor, Asemum striatum, Spondylis buprestoides and Hylobius abietis. All but the last one (Curculionidae) belong to genus Cerambycidae. The two Monochamus species were the only ones carrying B. mucronatus fourth dispersal stages, total number of nematode larvae per beetle being higher in M. galloprovincialis. The frequency of infestation was 24% in M. galloprovincialis and 14% in M. sutor but the difference eas not statistically significant.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Tomminen,
E-mail:
jt@mm.unknown
The writer reports in this discussion article of four stands in Finland that have died due to a bolt of lightning. A death of a group of trees because of lightning has been relatively uncommon for the forest professionals. The trees may not have no lightning marks. The four sites are presented in detail. Characteristic for this type of death of trees is, for instance, that trees have died within a circular area (of usually 30 m of diameter), only conifers have died, trees die from the top down, sometimes marks can be found in trees in the centre of the area, and under the bark may be brown patches or stripes.
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Nuorteva,
E-mail:
mn@mm.unknown
The paper is a review on utilization of peatlands in forestry in the countries of boreal zone: Finland, Norway, Sweden, Canada, the United States and the Soviet Union. First, the concept of peatlands, the types of peatlands throughout the zone are defined, and the use of natural peatlands is described. Finally, the drainage of peatlands for forestry purposes in the countries is reviewed. According to the statistics, a total of 13 million ha of peatlands have been drained in Fennoscandia and the Soviet Union.
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Päivänen,
E-mail:
jp@mm.unknown
Decision making in the forest protection involves diagnosing the pest, making predictions of the effects of the pest on forest, knowing the possible control tactics, and cost/benefit integration. To cope with all that, a generalist forest manager needs a tool like an expert system to support decisions.
This paper presents an expert system that approaches the goals of integrated pest management. With the systm, the user can make diagnosis and predictions of 12 North European bark beetles. Written in Common LISP and Flavors, the expert system has a combined frame- and rule-based knowledge representation. Frames are used to represent the hierarchy of insect taxonomy in diagnosis. Prediction is made with qualitative reasoning with rules. The interface engine applies both forward and backward chaining. The system has a graphical user interface that supports exploring the sensitivity of advice on input.
It is concluded that expert systems and artificial intelligence have high applicability everywhere in forestry where complicated decisions have to be made. Especially, an integrated pest management system in forestry is largely equivalent to a computerized decision-making aid.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Saarenmaa,
E-mail:
hs@mm.unknown
Linear programming was used to analyse the land use alternatives in the Debre Birhan Fuelwood Plantation area, in the central highlands of Ethiopia. The region represents a rural, high-altitude area, where the main land uses are grazing and cultivation of barley, wheat and pulses. To alleviate fuelwood shortage, large plantations of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. have been established. Livestock has traditionally used the major part of the production capacity of the sites. A decrease in the number of cattle would facilitate a considerable increase in the production of cereals, pulses, fuelwood and construction timber. The optimal share of the land for arable crops, grazing and tree plantations would be about 40, 45 and 15% respectively.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Pukkala,
E-mail:
tp@mm.unknown
- Pohjonen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown
Seeds of ten different Betula species were treated with colchicine solution during germination, to induce duplication of the chromosome set. The species included in the study were B. pendula, B. pubescens, B. papyrifera subcordata, B. papyrifera papyrifera, B. papyrifera occidentalis, B. populifolia, B. alleghaniensis, B.n igra, B. glandulosa and B. nana. The total number of individually labelled, colchicine-treated trees was 1,550. Colchicine treatment induced changes in morphological features, especially in the leaves. These features proved to be good indicators of polyploidization. The experiments produced 687 polyploid trees, 287 of which are still alive. The polyploid Betula trees offer possibilities of studying the significance of the genome dosage for the growth, breeding, adaptability and evolution of Betula.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Särkilahti,
E-mail:
es@mm.unknown
- Valanne, E-mail: tv@mm.unknown
When Finland attained independence in 1917–1918, about 65% of her population made their linving from agriculture and only 17% from industry. Despite the fact that most sectors of the modern forest industry, i.e. sawmilling, pulp and paper making as well as plywood industry were then in existence a considerable proportion of timber was exported as roundwood.
It was reasonable to assume, however, that further economic development would reduce the roundwood exports to provide raw material for industry. The present paper investigates the Finnish roundwood exports in 1921–1986 largely from the point of view of this hypothesis. Examination of statistics is focused on the change of volume of exports in the major categories of wood, changes in the trade policies of consumer countries, changes in competition between exporting countries and changes in Finnish export policy.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Holopainen,
E-mail:
vh@mm.unknown
Differences in vegetation cover estimation by field biologists of the 8th National Forest Inventory in Finland were tested. Eleven observers estimated the canopy coverages of six forests taxa in 25 sample plots, located in one stand. The experiment was arranged after the field work. The coverage of Vaccinium vitis-idaea and the ground layer appeared to be the most difficult to estimate. The mean of the highest estimator was about double that of the lowest one. The least abundant species and the sample plots with the smallest coverages had the largest estimation errors. The most important compositional gradient of the data was natural, even though the test was made in a homogenous area. However, the effect of the observer could be recognized. The differences between observers could be caused by the differences both in visual estimation level and in placing the sampling frame. The results suggest that tests should always be made when several observers are used in vegetation surveys. If calibration is used, it should be made separately for each species.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Tonteri,
E-mail:
tt@mm.unknown
The influence of different fertilization treatments and ditch spacings on the height growth of young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedling stands growing under various climatic regimes were determined. Comparisons were made between naturally regenerated and planted seedling stands. The effective temperature sum had a stronger effect on the height growth of planted seedlings, and in Northern Finland the planted seedlings seemed to be influenced to a greater degree by the adverse climatic conditions. The heavier the dose of fertilizer that had been applied, the greater the difference in growth caused by macroclimate. A considerably larger proportion of natural seedlings were located on hummocks compared with that of planted seedlings, irrespective of the region. On plots with wider ditch spacings, seedlings growing on hummocks were superior in height growth to those on flat surfaces.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Miyazava,
E-mail:
tm@mm.unknown
- Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
The paper presents a simple model of long-term forest management planning in tree plantations. The model is particularly suitable for developing countries where the research resources are limited. The management plan is prepared in two steps. First, one or several treatment schedules are simulated for each calculation unit (age class, compartment, etc.) over the selected planning period. Second, an optimal combination treatment schedules according to the selected objectives and constraints is searched by mathematical programming. The simulation of growth is based on the prediction of the diameter distribution at the desired time point. All stand characteristics are derived from this distribution. The models needed in the yield simulation can be estimated from temporary sample plots. A case study management plan for 13,000 ha of Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) plantations in Zambia is presented to demonstrate the system.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Pukkala,
E-mail:
tp@mm.unknown
- Mubita, E-mail: om@mm.unknown
- Saramäki, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
This paper presents the publishing guidelines of the Finnish Society of Forest Science for the forest scientific series of Silva Fennica. This paper presents the instructions to authors in Finnish, the English instructions are included in a separate PDF.
This paper presents the publishing guidelines of the Finnish Society of Forest Science for the forest scientific series of Silva Fennica. This paper includes the instructions to authors in English, the Finnish instructions are in a separate PDF.
In soil profiles from a series of uplands of different site types bulk density, density of solids and porosity of soil were clearly related to soil organic matter content and its distribution in the soil profile. Soil organic matter contents were also strongly correlated to effective cation exchange capacity (CEC) and soil acidity. Site fertility was primarily related to the fine fraction (ø<0.06 mm) content in the C horizon and related properties (i.e. CEC). In the humus layer, the content of exchangeable bases and base saturation most strongly related to site fertility.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Westman,
E-mail:
cw@mm.unknown
Based on a survey of world literature it is concluded that 1) the better -researched epidemic forest pathosystems are caused by anthropogenic factors, 2) the systems most likely have a polygenic background, and 3) resistance breeding should maintain polygenic resistance with restrictive incorporation of oligogenic resistance. Corresponding objectives are valid in breeding programs of presently balanced pathosystems, which may turn epidemic if man causes changes in the gene pool and alters critical environmental conditions.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Weissenberg,
E-mail:
kw@mm.unknown
A close relationship between photosynthetic capacity and nitrogen concentration of leaves is known to exist. In conifers, nitrogen also affects the pattern of mutual shading within a shoot, which is a basic unit used in studying photosynthesis of coniferous trees. These effects of needle nitrogen concentration on photosynthetic capacity and mutual shading of needles were analysed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) shoots taken from five young stands growing on sites of different fertility. The effect of nitrogen concentration on needle photosynthesis was studied based on measurements of the photosynthetic radiation response of shoots from which two thirds of the needles were removed in order to eliminate the effect of within shading.
An increase of one percentage unit in nitrogen concentration of needles increased the photosynthetic capacity of needles by 25 mg CO2 dm-2h-1. The effect of nitrogen on within-shoot shading was quantified in terms of the silhouette area to total needle area ratio of a shoot (STAR), which determines the relative interception rate per unit of needle area on the shoot. Although nitrogen promoted needle growth, an increase in nitrogen concentration decreased the within-shoot shading. This effect resulted from a decrease in needle density on the shoot and an increased needle angle with increasing nitrogen content.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Smolander,
E-mail:
hs@mm.unknown
- Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
- Oker-Blom, E-mail: po@mm.unknown
The results of regenerating 54 and 36–38-year old strip cuttings were surveyed in the Kivalo Research Forest (N 66°20’, E 26°40’). 15 measurement plots were placed on each strip. The most common forest type was Hylocomnium-Myrtillus type. Regeneration of the strips proved to be slow. Most of the spruces growing on the strips probably originated from the time before the cutting. The average number of stems was 1,155 per ha, of which one third consisted of broadleaved trees. The average volume increment of stem wood after cutting had been about 1 m3/ha/yr, but it was increasing at the time of the inventory. Both the reforestation of the strips and the development of the emergent stands were dependent on elevation and site fertility. Site fertility was indicated by the abundance of Vaccinium myrtillus.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Pohtila,
E-mail:
ep@mm.unknown
Containerized tree seedlings will be used on an increasing scale in the future in different parts of the world. There are number of techniques for the production of small one-year-old seedlings but it has not been possible to develop a completely satisfactory methods for large containerized seedlings production. In the long-term development of pine plantations established with containerized seedlings the greatest problem has been deformation of the root system. With a new method, based on a sheet of peat and root pruning, it has been possible to produce conifer seedlings with a good root regeneration potential and favourable morphological root system development. The use of small containerized seedlings allows an increase in planting density without any marked increase in regeneration costs.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Parviainen,
E-mail:
jp@mm.unknown
Refertilization with PK, about 15 years after the first fertilizer application, increased tree growth and the amount of nutrients in tree litter in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (mainly Betula pubescens Erhr.) stands on a drained fertile mire in Northern Finland (65°34 N’, 25°42’ E). The increase in growth and nutrient contents after refertilization was greatest in the mature pine stand where the application of nitrogen and micronutrients gave an additional response compared to the PK-application.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Paavilainen,
E-mail:
ep@mm.unknown
Seed mass within any plant species is one of the least plastic components of plant structure. The aim of this study was to analyse the variation in the seed mass of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in relation to three environmental factors: soil fertility, mean temperature and precipitation during seed filling period. Data published earlier on seed mass of these species on different sites and different years was used in the study.
The seed mass of both species was independent of soil fertility (forest type) but did vary between different years. It is hypothesized that if the seed-ripening summer is warmer than average, Scots pine seed mass tends to be smaller. In this study, seed mass varied independently of the amount of precipitation during the ripening summer. However, generalization of the results requires further study.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Nygren,
E-mail:
mn@mm.unknown
The structure and functional responses of roots in planted seedlings when acclimatizing at the planting site are reviewed. A wide range of methods for classifying roots has been employed, and the terminology used is not uniform. Roots can be classified by their morphology, origin, and function. The temporal and spatial variation of soil temperature, moisture, structure, and concentration of nutrients are among the most important properties to which root systems acclimatize. In order to reliably describe the function of the root system, several parameters usually have to be measured. Studies on the root-soil interface have indicated that roots are not necessarily in continuous contact with soil. The control mechanism of root growth is inadequately known and theoretically formulated. Generally, only the mass needed for water and nutrient uptake has been allocated to the roots. However, the amount of photosynthates allocated to the roots is high. Acclimatization of seedlings out at the planting site is a complicated process which is influenced by the growing conditions at both the nursery and at the site. The function, distribution and structure of roots are controlled by the environment in a way similar to the shoot, but the control mechanism is imperfectly known.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Lippu,
E-mail:
jl@mm.unknown
- Puttonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
While the most common type of mycorrhizae is endomycorrhizae, ectomycorrhizae dominate in the case of coniferous trees. Pine, in particular, has a strong association with mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae enable trees to take up water and nutrients much more efficiently than the roots themselves. The fungus, in return, obtain carbohydrates and is able to grow and fruit. Mycorrhizal fungi are probably numbered in their thousands but so far few are known. Knowledge about their physiology, in particular, is lacking and studies dealing with their isolation and inoculation, which may be commercially valuable, remain unpublished. A new challenge for mycorrhiza research is the effects of air pollution. Forest suffering from extensive air pollution have few mycorrhizal fungi., infection is weak and the number of root deformations is high. As good mycorrhizae are important to tree health, there is a particular need to intensify mycorrhiza research.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Laiho,
E-mail:
ol@mm.unknown
The winter 1986–87 was unusually cold; the snow cover remained thin and consequently the soil froze to a considerable depth. In spite of the severe frost, the lowest temperatures measured at the ground surface was -10.3°C and in the soil at the depth of 10 cm -5.8°C. The temperature sum of the following summer was unusually small and the soil frost melted more slowly than usual. The winter frosts did not have a decisive influence on the survival of planted seedlings.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Kubin,
E-mail:
ek@mm.unknown
The author first introduced the cut-block seedling production method to Finland in 1969. The aim is to raise seedlings whose lateral roots do not become deformed as a result of a restricting container or other external pressure. The seedlings are raised in a large, fairly compact substrate block where the roots can freely develop in a normal fashion. The blocks are then cut up into individual cubes, each containing a seedling. The precise positioning of the sowing point permits mechanization of the work.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Huuri,
E-mail:
oh@mm.unknown
A third generation of forest tree gas exchange measuring system design for the use in the field is described. The system is designed to produce data for determining the dependence of the rate of tree photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration on environmental factors. The system consists of eight cuvettes, a tubing system, two infrared gas analysers, an air flow controller, a data logger, and a computer. The measuring cuvette is a clap type, i.e. it is mostly open, only closing during measurement. CO2 exchange is measured as the change in the cuvette concentration of CO2, and, transpiration is measured as the increase in water vapour concentration while the cuvette is closed. The environmental factors measured are temperature, irradiance and air pressure. The system was planned in 1987 and constructed in 1988. It worked reliably in late summer 1988 and the quality of data seems to be satisfactory.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.
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Hari,
E-mail:
ph@mm.unknown
- Korpilahti, E-mail: eeva.korpilahti@luke.fi
- Pohja, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
- Räsänen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
Based on literature this paper describes the natural afforestation of Finland that took place after the last ice age and the changes which have taken place during the last 10,000 years. The origin and development of the vegetation and trees are related to the changes in the edaphic and climatic factors. The first tree species to arrive in Finland were the primary colonizing species, birch and Scots pine. The appearance of Norway spruce dates back to about 5000 B.P. There have been great changes in the species composition of Finnish forests during the last several thousands of years but some 2,000–3,000 years ago the various species reached their present balance. The epoch of naural forests, which had lasted some 9,500 years, came to a conclusion, however, when man started to have a marked effect on the forest’s development 300–400 years ago.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
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Alho,
E-mail:
pa@mm.unknown
On 23th of March 1989 professor emeritus Paavo Yli-Vakkuri celebrated his 75th birthday. In 1963–1977 he acted as professor of silviculture and Head of the Department of Silviculture at the University of Helsinki. Due to his personality and positive attitude towards students and younger colleqaues, silviculture became the most popular subject for the graduate and postgraduate forestry students, and active research flourished at the Department of Silviculture during his era. This issue of Silva Fennica is dedicated to Paavo Yli-Vakkuri in gratitude and respect for his professional accomplishments in academic studies and research in forest sciences.
The PDF includes an abstract in English.
