Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 | 1954

The article summarises the career of Eino Saari, professor of forest economics at the University of Helsinki on his 60^th anniversary. He is the founder of forest economics research in Finland, and has developed the theory of forest balance. He abandoned the traditional static view of the forest balance and developed a new dynamic conception.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday. 

The PDF includes a summary in English and Swedish.

• Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: info@metsatiede.org

Forests have been priced by assessing separately the value of the land, small timber and heavy timber, and adding them together. This method of summing up gives a small woodlot the same price per hectare as a large forest area. In real estate sales the actual prices paid per hectare, however, are higher for small woodlots. The summing-up method thus over-values big forest holdings.

The figures obtained by the summing-up method should be corrected by using a reduction percentage. This value should increase with the growth of the forest area and should be higher for fully-stocked areas than those with small growing stock. A table of reduction percentages is presented, where an effort is made to eliminate the effect upon the statistics of the potential value of the land as building site and field. The results clearly indicate that the effect of area upon the price of a woodlot is fairly marked, even with very small parcels.

On the other hand, determination of the reduction percentages has some theoretical weaknesses. The author recommends a method of price evaluation which takes the factor of area directly into account, excluding arbitrary correction percentages. In this method the marketable part of the growing stock is evaluated at its felling value and its relative role decreases with the growth of the area. The rest of the growing stock together with the ground is priced as rental value. This method of professor Eino Saari does justice both to the area and to the fact that forest land and the growing tied to it form an inseparable whole.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown

The purpose of the investigation was to examine the seasonal pattern in Finnish export shipments and export sales of sawn softwood in 1927-1953. Statistics concerning shipments have been obtained from the Board of Customs, and material relating to sales has been provided by the Finnish Sawmill Owner’s Association (now Finnish Sawmills Association). On the basis of original monthly statistics, 13-month moving averages were computed. Finally, a seasonal index was calculated.

According to the results, the export shipments have a fairly apparent seasonal pattern with very low figures from January to April, a peak from June to August, and thereafter a gradual decline up to the end of the year. There are also considerable variations from year to year but in general the exports follow this rhythm. In contrast to export shipments the seasonal pattern of export sales is characterised by significant irregularity. Market developments and speculation play a far greater role than the seasonal factors. Indeed, a seasonal character in export sales can scarcely be discerned.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Holopainen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown

Periodicals connected with forestry profession have been published in Finland since 1888. The earliest paper, Suomen Metsänhoitolehti, ceased to appear in 1893, and was succeeded in 1895-1907 by Metsänystävät, published by the Finnish Forestry Association. In 1908-32 the Finnish Forest Association Tapio published a monthly periodical called Tapio, which was succeeded in 1933 by Metsälehti, dealing with forest management.

The paper Tapio focused particularly on the improvement of private forestry, and increasing interest in rational forestry and forest utilization. Its predecessor Metsälehti has even published official notices and specialist articles for the whole branch. The circulation of the paper has increased from about 8,000 copies in 1933 to 38,700 copies in 1953. Almost 90% of the subscribers are forest owners, and the rest forest professionals.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Jänterä, E-mail: aj@mm.unknown

Small-scale forest holdings are a specific research interest of forest research as they have many special questions in the sense of forest management. The article presents the characters of small-scale forest holdings in Germany. In connection to agricultural activities three different forms of forest use can be distinguished. They are forest-agriculture holdings, where forestry has an equal meaning with the agriculture; agricultural holdings with small areas of forest used only for fire wood or other household purposes; and thirdly farms with very small parcels of forest with no economic meaning and also minor household use.   

Forest research disciplines concerning these small-scale forest holdings and the policy instruments to enhance the sustainable management of these forests are discussed.

• Mantel, E-mail: km@mm.unknown

Work studies conducted in Finland and Sweden on forest work have shown that the performance of different workers or even of a same worker vary greatly, although external conditions such as the size and other properties of the trees, weather etc. are similar. It has been decided in the Northern Countries that as it is impossible to assess the working speed of a man, it is not possible to find out the average work performances, not even from long term time studies. The only way is to collect performance statistics.

Metsäteho (Forest Work Studies Section of the Central Association of Finnish Woodworking Industries) has collected since 1946 statistics on the working sites of forest industry companies in different parts of Finland on the preparation on timber. To make it comparable the material has been converted to uniform values by using the ratios given by the work time studies of various forest jobs conducted by Metsäteho. The ratios are necessary in trying to determine average performances by statistical means. The actual length of time each man is at work on different days and the actual number of days is needed, because in Finland the workers can themselves decide fairly freely the length of a working day. In forest work, wages are paid for the quantity prepared, not for time. The statistics collected by Metsäteho include information on the length of the working days, and conditions in each forest, such as the size of the trees, form of stem, branchiness, bark thickness, terrain, density of the forest, weather conditions etc.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Vöry, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown

Due to the nature of forest taxation in Finland, there has been no information available on the amount of tax paid by forestry or of taxable forestry income. The main reason for this is the close connection of taxation of forestry and agriculture, which has made it difficult and expensive to separate the information of the sectors. This study determined the amount of taxable forestry mathematically based on statistics on the taxable forest areas in each tax zone on a county level.

The article concludes that the stumpage has been considerably higher than the taxable income in 1950-1953. In 1951 only 18.5% of the income received as stumpage was taxed, but in 1953 the proportion was 82.8%. In average 45% of the stumpage amount had become subject to taxation.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Selin, E-mail: ls@mm.unknown

In Finland the state has to pay local government taxes and certain connected smaller taxes, such as church and land taxes and forest management fees, on its forest property. On the other hand, the state tax on income and property is not collected, as the corresponding amount goes to the state in the form of a state forestry surplus.

It has been stated that if the state should pay similar taxes as companies do, the income of state forests would be small. The author has calculated the different taxes if the state forests would be a company or an individual tax-payer. As a company the income and property taxes would amount to 1,251 million marks and as a company to 730 million mark when the year 1952 is used as a reference. In drawing up the balance sheet for state forestry, local government taxes and other similar charges have been taken into account as expenses. By comparing the surplus with the calculated state tax payable, the state forestry would give a surplus, after deduction of taxes, of 1,846 million marks as an individual and 2,367 million marks as a company. State forestry would thus have been able to pay state income and property taxes from its surplus.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in Engilsh.

• Piha, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown

The wage problems of forest workers were first studied in 1931-1932, when the depression compelled the enforcement of a wage control system in forestry, and thus produced statistics on the earnings of forest workers. When the wage controls were introduced in 1934, it was necessary to determine wage norms on which to base the assessment on working results.

Three different norms were defined. The norm of daily earnings means the amount an adult, able-bodied, skilled forest worker should be able to earn in an 8-hour day at piece work. The norm of daily salary is the amount of a forest worker should be able to earn in an 8-hour day at time rates, and the wage norm per hour for floating workers is the amount a floating worker should receive per hour. The wages are controlled by special inspectors, and statistics on wages are collected by reports of the inspectors.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Hellén, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown

In Finland the state has to pay local government taxes and certain connected smaller taxes, such as church and land taxes and forest management fees, on its forest property. On the other hand, the state tax on income and property is not collected, as the corresponding amount goes to the state in the form of a state forestry surplus.

It has been stated that if the state should pay similar taxes as companies do, the income of state forests would be small. The author has calculated the different taxes as if the state forestry would be a company or an individual tax-payer. As a company the income and property taxes would amount to 1,251 million marks and as a company 730 million marks using the data of 1952. In drawing up the balance sheet for state forestry, local government taxes and other similar charges have been taken into account as expenses. By comparing the surplus with the calculated state tax payable, the state forestry would give a surplus, after deduction of taxes, of 1,846 million marks as an individual and 2,367 million marks as a company. State forestry would thus have been able to pay state income and property taxes from its surplus.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in Engilsh.

• Osara, E-mail: no@mm.unknown

Root systems of a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands of seed trees on a Vaccinium sites in Southern Finland were studied by taking soil samples around the seed trees. The results show that root system of an old Scots pine spreads relatively evenly around the tree up to at least 10 meters from the stem. The densest part of the root system is near the stem, which part is often acentric. This is probably due to root competition in the early stages of growth of the tree.

Root systems of the seed trees affect stocking of the site with seedlings and the growth of the seedlings. The root competition can cause, for instance, uneven grouping of the seedlings. It seems that the largest trees of a stand have the most even root system. It is therefore recommended to choose the strongest trees of the stand as seed trees, to ensure even distribution of seedlings.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Kalela, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown

Pine swamps are easily regenerated by natural regeneration of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Usually seeding felling is used, but also strip system or clear cutting and regeneration along stand edge has been suggested. This article discusses the regeneration by clear cutting and sparing the existing undergrowth. The article focuses on pine swamps to be drained and the ones in natural state.

Pine swamps in natural state usually have plenty of trees of smaller diameter classes, that can be trusted to form the future tree generation after the felling. This shortens the rotation by 20-30 years. The undergrowth has been shown to recover quickly. The method suits for regeneration of drained peatlands but could fit also for regeneration of pine swamps in natural state.

The seedlings in the pine swamps are mainly 1-5 years old, and the stock is changing. It seems that larger trees produce a wider selection of age groups, but the seedlings survive longer under smaller mother trees. Part of the younger generations of seedlings seem to be destroyed when the peatland is drained. Further studies are needed to investigate how the draining and felling are to be performed to spare the young seedlings.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown

In the year 1925 harmonization of the forest taxation practices took place in the Federal Republic of Germany. The values are checked and renewed every six year, excluding the time of war. This unit value is a basis for many taxes and other payments, e.g. in cases of succession.

The article describes the ways the unit values have been historically calculated and the current practices. Also the forest inventory practices are discussed.    

• Abetz, E-mail: ka@mm.unknown

In Finland a large land reform has been accomplished which has increased the number of small farms and forest holdings by over 100,000. It is estimated that 4-5 million ha of forest land has been transferred to these smallholdings. The aim of this investigation was to study the areas of the wood lots of the farms established in connection to settlement activities during the time Finland has been independent.

The study shows that the farms established on the state-owned lands have been given forest areas big enough to enable them timber sales, provided that the forests were in a moderately good silvicultural condition. Relatively largest forest areas have been given to farms established from tenant farms. The farms established on private lands have got in average forest areas that are smaller than would be required for growing of household timber. In Southern Finland the area has been adequate, but in Northern Finland too small in part of the farms. Also, variation in the size of the farms has been larger. The farms established under the Land Acquisition Act have been given in average more than the principle of according to which half of the forests should be suitable for cultivation of household timber and half for timber sales.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Kallio, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown

In acquiring land for the population displaced by the Second World War, the forest had to be priced, according to the Land Reclamation Act of 1945, separately for land and timber. Technical defects in the growing stock were to be taken account in the form of a total reduction in the value of the stock. Generally, it was to be 5-15% of the total value. The present investigation aims at checking the reduction percentages.

When the reduction in the felling value of the growing stock caused by the defects is estimated, the reduction is defined for each timber assortment, and the total reduction is calculated from these values. The timber assortments have big variation in prices, therefore defects in the most valuable assortments can have big effect on the total value of the growing stock. According to the study, the decree implementing the Land Reclamation Act did not in some cases allow for price reductions for defects on a sufficiently small scale to correspond to real conditions.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Salo, E-mail: es@mm.unknown

Many countries have enacted plant protection laws or statutes that consist timber imported into a country, both raw wood and processed timber. This has caused some inconvenience to the international timber trade. Necessary protection against the spread of pests via export is fully acceptable, but the protection should be based on actual need.
When considering processed or barked raw timber, the problem concerns only species that pass their development in the wood. The four most important biological requirements affecting the risk are 1) the tree species of the importing country and affinity of the pest, 2) climatic conditions of the importing country and the pest’s range and adaptability to the climate, 3) biological factors regulating the population, and 4) suitability of the individual development of the pest for transmission. These risks are discussed in the article.

It is concluded that it is possible largely to eliminate the species that might be conveyed via export timber. It is often possible to decide in advance what danger threatens the importing country from species that might be conveyed via export timber. This would make it possible to adapt plant protection regulations to suit the relation between the exporting and importing countries.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

• Kangas, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown

Central Association of Finnish Forest Industries decided in 1953 to begin collecting annual statistics of timber transportation of its members. The survey of members covers almost 97% of the timber transportations of the member companies, which have production over 1,000 cu ft. In all 79 companies answered the survey. Their total timber transportation was 166,4 million cu ft in 1952.

The long-distance transportation of saw logs by horse transport directly to the mill or other such location was 1,297 cu ft, by truck transport 42,644 cu ft, by rail transport 6,707 cu ft, and by water transport 115,789 cu ft. The average transportation distance was for horse transport 2.4 km, truck transport 27 km, rail transport 224 km and water transport 209 km.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.
The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Lindfors, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown

The first estimates on the forest resources of Finland were presented in the middle of the 1900^th century. The first line survey was conducted in 1912 in Central Finland. In 1921-1923 a survey of the forests of the whole country was commenced. The method consisted in measurement of sample plots in conjunction with ocular estimation of all the stands within the range of the lines. The methods were further developed in the second National Forest Survey in 1936-1938, which payed special attention to the silvicultural condition of the forests, and the growth in the light of climatic variation. When 3.3 million ha of forests were ceded to the Soviet Union in the peace treaty of 1944, the results of the survey had to be recalculated. The next survey was conducted 1951-1953. In this survey, the recovery of stands on drained peatlands was studied. The results of the inventories show that forest resources of Finland had icreased since the 1936-1938 survey.

The first investigation of wood utilization in Finland was carried out in 1927, after the first National Forest Survey had provided information on the forest resources, and knowledge of the other side of the forest balance was desired. The most difficult part was to determine the domestic wood consumption of the rural population. This was accomplished by studying 1,337 sample farms. The second investigation was commenced in 1938, and third in 1954.

These two investigations have made it possible to determine the annual removal and annual growth, and by comparing these results, growth balance. A forest balance is an essential condition for judicious forestry.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

• Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown

The cone crop of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) has been assessed in Finland since 1930 annually by sending a questionnaire to forest professionals around the country. Based on the result it is decided if the crop is good enough for collection of the cones next winter. This article presents the results of cone surveys in 1950-1953, and suggest improvements in the method of the investigation.

According to the survey, Scots pine crop was best in 1952, when the crop was intermediate in the whole country, and relatively abundant in the county of Lapland. Norway spruce crop was best in 1951, when the crop was better than in average in the whole country. The evaluators had variable opinions whether the crop was good enough for cone collection or not. They assessed the pine cone collection more often as profitable than the spruce cone collection. Usual reasons to regard spruce cone collection as unprofitable were seed damages and the sites being too far away. To make the results more uniform and accurate, a suggestion to change the evaluation method is presented. The evaluation should be focused on the cone crop of mature stands.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.
The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Rummukainen, E-mail: ur@mm.unknown

The investigation studies the development of a logger’s daily earnings, a sawmill worker’s hourly earnings, saw timber stumpage prices and saw timber export prices, expressed in marks in Finland in 1913-1953, concentrating upon the trends of real value.

Although worker’s earnings in forestry and sawmilling have developed differently especially in the 1920s, the late 1930s and the early 1940s, their general long-time development has been very similar. On the other hand, the stumpage prices increased in real value much sharply than wages before the World War II. The real value of stumpage prices dropped because of economic regulation measures in the 1940s until regulation was abolished and the Korean War boom raised them in 1951, to fall after that. The development depends partly of the development of export prices for sawn timber.

Without changing the distribution of income from exports the real value of labour earnings, measured by export prices, may rise at most at a pace corresponding to the productivity of work. In logging there has been no actual increase in the productivity in the 20th century. As the increase in the productivity in timber transportation has probably been absorbed in increased wages and capital costs in the branch, a rise in forest labour’s real earnings and stumpage is possible only by means of a rise in the productivity of sawmilling or a change in the distribution of export income. It seems that from the end of World War I up to the middle of 1920s this increase of productivity and in export prices of sawn timber was shared only by capital and possibly mill labour. After that up to World War II stumpage prices rose so steeply that they swallowed the entire increase in productivity and reduced capital’s share of the export price. In the 40s the level of earnings followed the trend of productivity in industry, made possible by a sharp reduction in stumpage.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown

The study examines the accuracy of volume tables for top measurement of pulpwood boles, and that of top measurement in general in Northern Finland. In this method only top diameter and length of the boles are measured, and the volume is obtained from volume tables. The boles have previously been measured in the middle of the bole, but the method is very time consuming in practice.

The result indicates that the form of both Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) varies greatly. A pulpwood parcel, however, contains both rapidly and gently tapering logs, and the average form differences are much smaller. The difference between the real volume and the volume obtained from the volume tables is generally less than 12% and for more than third of the stock less than 4%.

Pine boles from private forests have been somewhat more and spruce boles less rapidly tapering than boles cut from state forests. The significance of the differences is not clear. Also, the boles in the northern part of the investigation area taper more sharply than those in the southern part.
It is concluded that the accuracy of the top measurement should be improved, but this is only theoretically possible by means of special tables and correction coefficients.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown

Finland was the first country, in connection with World War II, from which reparations were demanded. In September 1944 Soviet Union demanded indemnifications of 300 million dollars, payable in commodities (timber products, paper, wood pulp, sea-going and river craft, sundry machinery). Later similar obligations of deliveries in kind were applied to Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy. Germany were to pay in kind for the losses caused by her to the Allied nations in the course of the war.

The article discusses the principle of war indemnities to be paid exclusively in kind, which was a new one, and compares it to the situation after World War I. One reason for the principle was a negative lesson drawn from the experiences after the previous war. A reparation system of payment in kind is the most suitable system for a country like the Soviet-Union, as it requires, at least some degree of economic planning by a centralized system.
The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

• Suviranta, E-mail: bs@mm.unknown

Britain has the smaller proportion of woodland than almost any other country in Europe. During the two World Wars strategic considerations led to an examination of the adequacy of the national forest resources. A Forestry Commision was set up and the state started to promote the expansion of forestry. In the second war-time examination of the national forest policy, the Forestry Commision set an aim that after 50 years there would be about 5 million acres of productive woodland. However, the aim was not reached. During the Second World War there was large inroads into the remaining growing stock. The post-war policy recognized a need to new emphasis to reforestation, and two Forestry Acts were enacted in 1945 and 1947 to speed up the planting program.

In 1947 there was 3,448,362 acres of forests in blocks of five acres or over, and 184,000 acres in smaller woods. 82% of these were owned by private forest owners. The area of high forests was 1,788,799, coppice 349,994, scrub 496,994, devastated land 151,064 and felled 665,554 acres. The objective is that forestry in Britain should eventually supply about a third of the annual requirement. The 1947 act introduced the Dedication Scheme, which for instance provides grants and loans for the forest owners for forest management work, and states some obligations concerning forestry.

The expansion of forestry was shaped by ideas of national safety in time of war rather than buy achieving profit. Presently, the main economic task is to build up the national forest industry.
The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

• MacGregor, E-mail: jm@mm.unknown

A state committee report proposing the enactment of a Forest Management Act has recently been published in Finland. The act is intended to be considerably more binding on forest owners than the present law concerning private forests which it would replace. The author assumes that the publication will raise a keen discussion that will ensue pro and contra the proposed law. The article includes a review of the first draft for a Forest Management Act prepared in the wartime winter of 1944. At that time the then minister of forestry N.A. Osara and professor Eino Saari had studied the draft. The former commented the act to the author by saying that after the return of peace the forests would have to be prepared to be restored to good condition, using radical measures if necessary. He foresaw that a proposal for the forest management law might meet with some resistance, but thought it was important enough to be forced through nevertheless. Professor Saari pointed out that bearing in mind that hardly any other country in the world is dependent upon her forests to such a decree as Finland, the requirement expressed in the draft (forests must be managed with a view to the most advantageous return as regards tree species, quality and quantity) must be considered justified. The author hopes that despite the prevailing resistance foreseen by Osara, a law will be enacted to correct the situation under the present law which tends to leave the management of our forests to the mercy of arbitrary decisions.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown

The origins of time study has been in the need to streamline industrial work. One of the differences between industrial and forest work is that in forest work the working conditions are subject to continuous changes. The work is also strenuous, and physical strength may come into its own in addition to skill. For these reasons, the product of a worker per time unit varies in forest work much more than in industrial work.

In industrial time studies, determination of working tempo is, besides measurement of working time, vital when calculating the normal work performance. In the Northern Countries, it has been concluded that it is impossible to determine the working tempo of a forest worker. A so-called comparative time study in which a study is made of the work performances of the same workers at different jobs and in different conditions so that the measured working times are directly comparative. Also, the requirements made for the extension of time study material are considerably greater than in Central European time studies. It is believed that the workers subjected to time studies must be observed for at least a week in each kind of work studied if the results are to be considered reliable.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Makkonen, E-mail: om@mm.unknown

The goal of improving forest management and doubling the yield of forests in Finland is a great task that requires law, encouragement, written propaganda, practical advice and purposeful work in the forests. In addition, it requires idealistic promotion and education of the citizens. The article discusses the nature and scope of forest propaganda. Different means of forest propaganda and promotion, such as lectures, films, newspapers, magazines, forest literature, stamps, placards and posters, excursions, exhibitions, fairs, forests along the main roads, competitions, education of youth etc are discussed, and their usefulness assessed.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Vesterinen, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown

The statistics of forest fires in Finland expanded in 1952 to include uninsured forests, when previously the statistics included only fires in state forests and insured forest holdings. For private forests the material is collected by central forestry associations with the aid of district forestry boards, and for state forests by the Forest Service which also prepares the overall statistics on forest fires in the country. Forest fire statistics for 1952 and 1953 have been prepared on the basis of regional grouping by counties.

In 1952 a total of 299 forest fires were discovered, affecting a burnt area of 764 ha. Of these 20 were in state forests, burning 139 ha, and 279 in private forests, burning 625 ha. The average devastated area was 2.6 ha (in state forests 6.9 ha). This year was the easiest from the point of view of forest fires in the period between 1946-1953. The year 1953, on the other hand, was the worst of the period. The number of fires was only 216, but the burnt area was 8,955 ha. In state forests 87 fires devastated 8,624 ha. In private forests 129 fires burned 331 ha. The average area destroyed was 4.2 ha (in state forests 99.1 ha, and in private forests 2.6 ha). The largest fires on state forests were in the northernmost districts of the country.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

• Ennevaara, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown

Forestry has developed at an extremely rapid pace in the United States during the past eight years. This has created job opportunities for foresters educated in the schools of forestry. From 1946 to 1953 American schools of forestry graduated 9,719 foresters.

The schools of forestry are gradually being emancipated from the control by colleges of agriculture and mechanical art. Professional demands are growing at a rapid pace, and the schools are expanding their programs to meet these changes. Faculties have responded to these new needs by adding new courses and curriculums. Colleges can perform their task best through improving the faculty and organizing courses in which the student becomes an active learner rather than a passive recipient of information.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

• Shirley, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday. In this article A. Howard Grøn discusses the use and meaning of term progressive forestry, introduced by professor Eino Saari, and its transformation to progressive yield in forest policy.

• Grøn, E-mail: ag@mm.unknown

Planning of large central tree nurseries, which has become topical in Finland, means that the seedlings will be used in a wide geographical area. The nursery must decide which proveniences of seeds of the different tree species it will use. This concerns also the customer that buys the seedlings. The planting and lifting of the seedlings in the nursery have to be timed so that the seedlings are in a right state of growth at the time of planting.

The growth of the seedlings can, under certain conditions, be promoted by using a slightly southerly seed provenience, and large-sized seeds. There are, however, limitations to how much the seeds can be transferred northwards. If the nursery lies much south of the planting site, the seedlings have started height growth at the time of planting. This applies especially larch (Larix sp.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula sp.), but affects less Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). The problem can be handled by using a cool storage space for the seedlings waiting for a delivery in the nursery.

According to an international study, seedlings grown from seeds collected in countries south from Finland usually die already during the first two years in the nursery. Within Finland the seeds can be transferred at least by two latitudes. Spruce seems to tolerate longer transfer. Seed orchards should be planted south of the seed’s origin to ensure better yield and better quality seeds.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.
The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown

Forest policy can be traced several hundred years back in Sweden. One of the early restrictions was related to iron industry, which was dependent on supply of charcoal. This led in the 17th century to the regulation of the industry in order to fit its capacity to the sustained yield of the forests. Also the early sawmill industry was kept under supervision in the mining districts in order not to compete with the iron industry of the forests resources.

In 1903 the fears of shortage of wood, caused by a few decades of unrestricted use of forests and the rise of pulp and paper industries, resulted in the first forest law (enacted in 1905). The leading principle of the law was that the owner of the forest had to secure reforestation after felling. When previously the regulation had limited the fellings within the sustainable yield of the forests, the new law aimed at promoting the productive capacity of the forests. New felling methods were developed and the new practices were spread to the forest owners with help of education, propaganda and giving advice. One important factor in the success of the forest law was founding of County forestry boards, which are the main agencies to materialize the constructive ideas of the new forest policy.

The First National Forest Survey was conducted in 1923-29, followed by the second in 1938, and third in 1954. A new forest law came into force in 1923, which prohibited the cutting of immature forests in other ways than by thinning. In 1948, new amendments of the law were introduced, which, for instance allowed the forest owner to put part of the income derived from the timber sales into a bank account to be later used in reforestation.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

• Streyffert, E-mail: ts@mm.unknown

Exported wood is measured at the port in Finland by certified measurers. Wood is paid according to these measuring certificates. However, in many cases the buyer measures the wood again in the country of destination, and gets smaller amounts. This sometimes causes awkward situations.

To examine the phenomenon one lot of pulpwood was measured both in Finland and in the destination country Germany. Several differences were found for the amounts of wood, and the author discussed the possible reasons for these differences.

However, because of the possible scattering in the measurements, several reductions are always made to the measurements. Hence it was proved that the buyer got the amount of wood they paid for. It is clear that the current practices and tools used to measure the amount of wood do not allow for any more accurate measures.     

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

• Aro, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown

The archives of the advisory organizations for private forest owners in Finland, Regional Forestry Boards and Forest Management Associations, include statistics of fellings in private forests. This investigation assesses felling areas and proportion of different kinds of fellings in 1945-1952 based on the statistics. The statistics does not include fellings where the trees have been marked by a forest owner.

The total area marked annually for cutting was in average 498,300 ha. As there is 1,24 million ha of private forests in Finland, the marking gives opportunity to improve the silvicultural state of private forest relatively quickly. The share of regeneration fellings has increased after the Second World War in many parts of the country. The result indicates that the annual cuttings in private forests have corresponded the amount of fellings that has been estimated necessary according to the National Forest Inventory. There are, however, big differences between different parts of the country.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown

The costs of floating have increased by about 20-fold after the Second World War in Finland, which has raised concerns in the forest sector. At the same time, the costs of road transport have increased by 16% and costs of rail transport by 15%. Floating has been replaced mainly by road transport in transport of roundwood, especially near the factories. This development is likely to continue as new roads are built and the truck fleet develops.  

In spite of the changes in timber transportation, floating was still the most common way of transporting roundwood in 1952: 69% of saw logs, 53% of veneer timber, 42% of domestic pulp wood, 14% of exported pulp wood and mining timber and 14% of firewood was transported by a water route. There are several ways to improve the efficiency of floating and decrease its costs. This can be achieved in two ways. First, using modern technology, such as tugboats, bundlers and other equipment, and second, improving the operation and co-operation between different actors.  

The PDF includes a summary in German. 

• Stolpe, E-mail: ns@mm.unknown

The article revises the accomplishments of professor Peter Woldemar Hannikainen, the former director of Forest Service of Finland, in the development of forest sector in the end of 1800s and beginning of 1900s.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown

About 17.5% of forest lands of Finland is situated around the river and lake system of Lake Saimaa. Furthermore, the growth of the forests  of the area correspond about 25% of the total growth of forests in Finland. The watersystem is one of the most important portages of roundwood in the country. It consists 11,000 km of floating channels, 2,000 km of which suit for floating in bundles. Annually 30-35 million cu ft of saw logs, 7 million cu ft of veneer timber and 2,5-3 million cu ft of pulp wood is floated in the area.

Even if the water system at present still suits well for floating, there are many opportunities for development, which would improve its competitiveness against other modes of transport. Several different sites where building of floating channels or improving the floatways are needed are described in the article.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Roitto, E-mail: wr@mm.unknown

Wood consumption in Finland in 1938-1939 was studied by investigating the wood consumption of aprroximately 2,000 farms. One of the surveys connected to the investigation studied fireplaces and heating equipment in rural districts, and recorded the types of fireplaces in the farms.

The majority of the rural fireplaces are rather old-fashioned and the technically best equipment are rare. The fireplaces in Eastern and Northern Finland are often more primitive than in Western and Southern Finland.

In Western Finland, where hard bread is common, the baking oven is lit 30-50 times a year. In Eastern Finland, where soft bread is baked, the oven is lit about 200 times a year. The sauna i heated about 40 times a year in the west, and 80 times a year in the east.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown

The use of imported fuels has increased in Finland, which has resulted in a growing disregard of domestic fuels, primarily firewood, on fuel market. This has affected forest management and economy of forest owners as well as diminishing the working opportunities in the countryside by decreasing the demand of small-sized timber. This investigation studies the fuel problem in the industrial field by a survey sent to all industrial plants in the country.

The different fuels were converted to the calorific value of pine firewood measured in piled cubic meters (p-m³, cu.m.). In 1950 the industry utilized 14.1 million cu.m piled measure of imported and domestic fuels. Of this 47% was domestic fuels and 53% imported fuels. The share of coal was 40%, wood waste almost 30%, and firewood 18%. The relatively small proportion of firewood suggests that it could be possible to increase the industrial demand for firewood. However, it should be noted that industry uses fuel mainly for power production, where imported fuels are highly effective. Forest industry used 2/3 of all domestic fuel.

According to the report, waste wood was cheapest kind of fuel for industry. It was, however, often the plant’s own waste material. The cost of coal at the mill was 60% of the corresponding price of firewood. The location of the industry affects greatly the price relations between domestic and imported fuels. Coal is cheaper close to the harbours and the coastline of the country. The state has supported firewood transportation by lower freight rates for firewood.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Pöntynen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown