Articles by Olli Makkonen
Category : Article
In Finland the first trade union in the field of forest work and timber floating was founded in 1946 and the first formal collective agreement was achieved in 1962. Information about the development of wage payments and work conditions (lodging and food) in forest work prior to the formal agreements was dispersed in a number of different sources, and is already partially in danger of being forgotten. The aim of this study was to bring together all available information concerning the matter in question.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
In this article, information about tree growth which was familiar to the learned men in the old days is presented. The time when different tree species start growing, the different growth rate of various tree species, the age of trees, their resistance to injury etc. are discussed.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
In the first place the term short-rotation forestry is being used in the sense of intensive tree growing during a short rotation time using reproduction by coppice shoots from broad-leaved tree material which has been specially bred for this purpose, or of producing fast-growing varieties from planted stock during the course of somewhat longer rotation time (maximum 20 years). However, short-rotation forestry as such has already a long history.
In the Fertile Crescent in ancient Egypt grew no tree species suitable for short-rotation production, but reeds and bulrushes were used for the same purpose as willow-twigs, e.g. wickerwork or binding. At least in the Fertile Crescent reed harvesting using a rotation of one year was practiced already very long ago. The earliest information about coppice-shoot cultivation is found in Greek literature, but it was the Romans who developed short-rotation forestry based on the trees’ capacity of reproducing through coppice shoots into an extensive economic activity. Willows were by far the most important species used. Twigs intended for wickerwork were harvested once a year and thicker material, to be used for support and in basket framework, every fourth year. Chestnut and oak were used for the production of slightly thicker poles employing a longer rotation. Cypress poles were produced from seedlings using a rotation time of 12–13 years. Roman scholars give us plenty of information concerning the tending of plantations in short-rotation forestry.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
It is possible to show that many of the after-effects resulting from the disappearance of forest cover were well known already in ancient times. The invigorating effect of moving around freely in the forest and its artistic creative ability were also recognized as well as the healing effect of coniferous forest on people suffering from consumption. Hunting and the use of forests for cattle grazing is also an extremely old practice. The so-called by-products of the forest such as tree bark and leaves, as well as berries and fruits, have played an important role in the history of mankind from the very earliest beginnings.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
By the last times of the Roman Empire, a considerable part of the vast forest and wilderness areas of the northern provinces had come into the possession of the Emperor and other owners of large land areas. Such areas were called saltus. The kings of the Franks considered all inhabited lands as belonging to the crown, but contrary to the Roman Emperors, they reserved the right of hunting and fishing in these areas for themselves. As the concept saltus did not originally include a prohibition against outsiders’ right to hunt and fish, and as among the people saltus still meant forest-covered wilderness in general, a new term was needed for description of uninhabited areas belonging to the king including all rights of using them. The introduced term was forestis, a word the origin of which has been a subject of much contention. In the present writer’s opinon, the most probable solution is that the word forestis has been derived from the Latin foris (outside of; e.g. outside of inhabited areas or of free utilization) by means of the suffix -estis. This is against the rules of Classic Latin, but it is completely possible in the case of the Latin of the seventh century.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
The paper outlines the information about forest tree nurseries in the Roman Empire, found in ancient writings. According to the author, it cannot be stated that actual forest cultivation was practiced in the times of the Roman Empire, even if tree seedlings were used for a variety of purposes, such as embellishment of cities, parks and gardens, and raising supporting trees in forest vineyards. Nurseries were usually established on farms to fill the owner’s needs. For instance, Gato, Varro, Virgil, Pliny and Colulmella have given instructions about establishment and management of nurseries, and methods to sowing seeds of different tree species. Except for seeds, both root- and branch-cuttings were used in cultivation of trees. Also, grafting was known.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
The article is a report from the meeting of the Section 32 of the IUFRO in Canada on September 15.–25. 1964, which three Finnish forestry experts participated. The theme of the meeting was classification of forest terrain.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
Category : Article
This paper presents a study on the works of ancient writers that deal with trees, forests and the use of forest before the time of actual forest sciences. The work describes the development of knowledge pertaining to the forest and trees and the progress made on utilizing them. This first part of a series of two articles is primarily concerned with biological information in ancient times. The article first describes the most important sources of information and concentrates then on the information on the structure of trees, on the vital functions of trees, on the factors affecting the growth of trees and tree species.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
The origins of time study has been in the need to streamline industrial work. One of the differences between industrial and forest work is that in forest work the working conditions are subject to continuous changes. The work is also strenuous, and physical strength may come into its own in addition to skill. For these reasons, the product of a worker per time unit varies in forest work much more than in industrial work.
In industrial time studies, determination of working tempo is, besides measurement of working time, vital when calculating the normal work performance. In the Northern Countries, it has been concluded that it is impossible to determine the working tempo of a forest worker. A so-called comparative time study in which a study is made of the work performances of the same workers at different jobs and in different conditions so that the measured working times are directly comparative. Also, the requirements made for the extension of time study material are considerably greater than in Central European time studies. It is believed that the workers subjected to time studies must be observed for at least a week in each kind of work studied if the results are to be considered reliable.
The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.
The PDF includes a summary in English.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
The present paper presents a study on the works of ancient writers that deal with trees, forests and the use of forests before the time of actual forest sciences. The work describes the development of knowledge pertaining to the forest and trees and the progress made on utilizing them. This second part of a series of two articles is concerned with logging, transportation and trade of timber, as well as procurement and trade of other forest products. These activities have been practiced as long as the history of mankind is known.
The article introduces the most important ancient written sources from the standpoint of the subject of the article, and related modern literature. The second part describes the texts concerning felling and primary conversion, and skidding and transportation. The third part concentrates on timber trade, and the fourth on the procurement and trade of other forest products.
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Makkonen,
E-mail:
om@mm.unknown
