Articles containing the keyword 'balance'

Dormant needles from 129 Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) trees from the 2nd and 3rd topmost whorls were collected from spruce stands locating fairly close to each other. Tree height varied from 8 to 25 metres. Trees with and without visual potassium deficiency symptoms in needles were selected and analysed for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, boron, copper, zinc, and 3 free polyamines putrescine, spermine and spermidine.

The concentrations of all the analysed nutrients ranged from deficient to satisfactory levels. Free putrescine, spermidine and spermine concentrations in the current needles had a wide variation between the trees. Spermidine had a positive and spermine a negative correlation with potassium. Putrescine had a strong negative correlation with potassium with statistically significant increase in putrescine starting at potassium concentrations below 5.4 mg/g dry weight. The regression between putrescine and potassium changed from a linear to a non-linear form at the potassium concentration of 4.2–4.6 mg/g dry weight representing a severe K deficiency limit. The corresponding K/P ratio was 2.6–2.7. Extremely low phosphorus concentrations (P < 1.0 mg/g) lowered putrescine concentrations, but otherwise the relationships between putrescine, spermidine or spermine and potassium concentrations were unaffected by tree nutrition. At adequate potassium levels the putrescine concentrations were only slightly lower in trees taller than 20 metres than in trees of 8–16 metres height. The results show that the needle putrescine concentration can be used quite reliably for describing potassium nutrition of Norway spruce in varying nutritional and tree size conditions.

• Kaunisto, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
• Sarjala, E-mail: ts@mm.unknown

A process-oriented tree and stand growth model is extended to be applicable to the analysis of timber quality, and how it is influenced by silvicultural treatments. The tree-level model is based on the carbon balance and it incorporates the dynamics of five biomass variables as well as tree height, crown base, and breast height diameter. Allocation of carbon is based on the conservation of structural relationships, in particular, the pipe model. The pipe-model relationships are extended to the whorl level, but in order to avoid a 3-dimensional model of entire crown structure, the branch module is largely stochastic and aggregated. In model construction, a top-down hierarchy is used where at each step down, the upper level sets constraints for the lower level. Some advantages of this approach are model consistency and efficiency of calculations, but probably at the cost of reduced flexibility. The detailed structure related with the branching module is preliminary and will be improved when more data becomes available. Model parameters are identified for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Southern Finland, and example simulations are carried out to compare the development of quality characteristics in different stocking densities.

• Mäkelä, E-mail: am@mm.unknown
• Ikonen, E-mail: vi@mm.unknown
• Vanninen, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown

A metabolic model of height growth and site index is derived from a parametrization of the annual carbon balance of a tree. The parametrization is based on pipe-model theory. Four principal variants of the height-growth model correspond to four combinations of assumptions regarding carbon allocation: (a) the apical shoot is autonomous or (b) it is not; and (A) the specific rate of elongation of a shoot equals that of a woody root or (B) it does not. The bB model is the most general as it includes the aA, bA, and aB models as special cases. If the physiological parameters are constant, then the aA model reduces to the form of the Mitscherlich model and the bA model to the form of a Bertalanffy model. Responses of height growth to year-to-year variation in atmospheric conditions are rendered through adjustments of a subset of the model's parameters, namely, the specific rate of production of carbon substrate and three specific rates of maintenance respiration. As an example, the effect of the increasing atmospheric concentration of CO₂ on the time-course of tree height of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is projected over 50-year span from 1986. Site index is predicted to increase and, more importantly, the shape of the site-index curve is predicted to change.

• Valentine, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown

Process-based tree growth models are recognized to be flexible tools which are valuable for investigating tree growth in relation to changing environment or silvicultural treatments. In the context of forestry, we address two key modelling problems: allocation of growth which determines total wood production, and distribution of wood along the stem which determines stem form and wood quality. Growth allocation and distribution are the outcome of carbon translocation, which may be described by the Munch theory. We propose a simpler gradient process to describe the carbon distribution in the phloem of conifers. This model is a reformulation of a carbon diffusion-like process proposed by Thornley in 1972. By taking into account the continuity of the cambium along the stem, we obtain a one-dimensional reaction-diffusion model which describes both growth allocation between foliage, stem and roots, and growth distribution along the stem. Distribution of wood along the stem is then regarded as an allocation process at a smaller scale. A preliminary sensitivity analysis is presented. The model predicts a strong relationship between morphology and foliage-root allocation. It also suggests how empirical data, such as stem analysis, could be used to calibrate and validate allocation rules in process-based growth models.

• Deleuze, E-mail: cd@mm.unknown
• Houllier, E-mail: fh@mm.unknown

The eddy covariance technique is a novel micrometeorological method that enables the determination of the atmosphere-biosphere exchange rate of gases such as ozone and carbon dioxide on an ecosystem scale. This paper describes the technique and presents results from the first direct measurements of turbulent fluxes of O₃, CO₂ and H₂O above a forest in Finland. The measurements were performed during 15 July-5 August 1994 above a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand near the Mekrijärvi research station in Eastern Finland.

The expected diurnal cycles were observed in the atmospheric fluxes of O₃, CO₂ and H₂O. The data analysis includes interpretation of the O₃ flux in terms of the dry deposition velocity and evaluation the dependency of the net CO₂ flux on radiation. The eddy covariance method and the established measurement system has proved suitable for providing high-resolution data for studying ozone deposition to a forest as well as the net carbon balance and related physiological processes of an ecosystem.

• Aurela, E-mail: ma@mm.unknown
• Laurila, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown
• Tuovinen, E-mail: jt@mm.unknown

The amount of carbon (C) stored in wood products manufactured in Finland was calculated with the help of a model using wood harvesting statistics, product flows and lifespans in order to study how much C could be set aside from the atmospheric C cycle outside the forest ecosystem. The calculations showed that on the average 9.9 Tg C/a was in harvested timber in 1986–1991 in Finland. C emissions of timber harvest and transport were 0.1 Tg C/a. In production processes about one third of the C bound in in timber was released into the atmosphere, but two thirds was still bound in products. After 50 and 100 years, more than 40% and 33% of the C initially in products was either in products still in use or disposed to landfills. The wood product C storage was most sensitive to landfill decay rate and to the burning of abandoned products for energy, but not to the same extent to the length of the lifespan of products.

• Karjalainen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
• Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
• Pussinen, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown

Forest balance is a comparison between the growing stock volume at the beginning and end of a balance period and the gross increment and drain during that period. The forest balance of Finland during that period 1967-1973 and the increment and drain balance during the period 1953-1977 are used as examples in the paper. Forest balance is a check of the accuracy of basic estimates. If the discrepancy between the calculated growing stock at the end of the balance period and the growing stock estimated by an inventory is great, it calls for improvements in forest inventory methods and timber utilization statistics.

Balance may reveal possibilities for improving the utilization of forest resources. If natural losses are great, increased thinnings and regeneration cuttings of mature and over-mature tree stands increase the supply of timber. If logging losses are great, the efficiency of harvesting should be improved. An overcutting situation calls forth efforts to increase timber production or to decrease the uses of timber in order to avoid overexploitation. If gross increment is greater than the drain there are possibilities to increase harvesting, forest industrial expansion etc.

Forest balance is a way to check and improve the basic estimates of forestry production, to increase the effective use of timber grown in the forest, to commerce policies and measures concerning increment and to control timber utilization on the basis of sustained yield.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown

The investigation is concerned with testing chemical totalizer of radiation (Frankfurt radiometer) for use in measuring the components of a simple energy balance (latent heat = net radiation – sensible heat) so as to gain an estimate for evaporation. The meter is based on the temperature dependence of the inversion rate of sugar solution. The relationship is exponential. It was found that radiation sums for 2–6-day periods can be reliably determined with this meter when global radiation is below 20 MJ·m^-2d^-1. Determining sensible heat is noticeably inaccurate, and hence the calculation of evaporation values, too. In comparing evaporation from different types of ground and plant cover one thus has to be content with drawing conclusions on the basis of net radiation values. The totalizer is therefore only suited to describing radiation conditions.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Mannerkoski, E-mail: hm@mm.unknown

This study was carried out on behalf of the Central Association of Finnish Forest Industries (now Finnish Forest Industries Federation) in order to obtain information about the wood raw material situation, to serve, in turn, as a basis for the forest industries’ long-term planning. The study deals with the potential supply of roundwood, industrial residue and forest residue by the year 200 by five wood-supply areas. Examination of the situation during the period of 1972–80 is based on available balances and that concerning the period 1985–2000 in the estimated quantities available for industrial use.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Suomen Metsäteollisuuden Keskusliitto, E-mail: –

The Finnish forest industries have doubled their use of wood raw material during the past two decades. The average annual overcut of 4.0 million m³ in 1960–64 has been turned into an average annual surplus of 2.7 million m³ in 1965–69. By 1974 industry’s requirements for domestic roundwood would increase by about 6.3 million m³, if all new capacity can be taken into full production. The MERA allowable cut, if realized, would leave a 1.5 million m³ annual surplus in the forest balance in 1974. Less intensive forestry programs would mean a 1.5 to 4.4 million m³ overcut in 1974.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown

The first estimates on the forest resources of Finland were presented in the middle of the 1900^th century. The first line survey was conducted in 1912 in Central Finland. In 1921-1923 a survey of the forests of the whole country was commenced. The method consisted in measurement of sample plots in conjunction with ocular estimation of all the stands within the range of the lines. The methods were further developed in the second National Forest Survey in 1936-1938, which payed special attention to the silvicultural condition of the forests, and the growth in the light of climatic variation. When 3.3 million ha of forests were ceded to the Soviet Union in the peace treaty of 1944, the results of the survey had to be recalculated. The next survey was conducted 1951-1953. In this survey, the recovery of stands on drained peatlands was studied. The results of the inventories show that forest resources of Finland had icreased since the 1936-1938 survey.

The first investigation of wood utilization in Finland was carried out in 1927, after the first National Forest Survey had provided information on the forest resources, and knowledge of the other side of the forest balance was desired. The most difficult part was to determine the domestic wood consumption of the rural population. This was accomplished by studying 1,337 sample farms. The second investigation was commenced in 1938, and third in 1954.

These two investigations have made it possible to determine the annual removal and annual growth, and by comparing these results, growth balance. A forest balance is an essential condition for judicious forestry.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

• Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown

Literature knows a variety of forest and timber related balances and even wider variety of calculations concerning the themes. The article presents forest and timber balances divided into three categories, based on their purpose.

The three categories are: 1) (national) economic balances for calculating the sustainability of forest use and sufficiency of forest resources; 2) balances of yearly harvesting rates for mostly commercial purposes, but also economic uses; and 3) balances of timber demand and those for balance between supply and demand, especially for foreign trade.

Finally the author critically views the use of balances to describe the amounts of wood used in industry.

• Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown

The financial accounting of the forestry needs redefining in Finland due to the effect of forest improvement, especially peatland drainage, on timber balance and valuation of forest land. The aim of the study was to develop methods to determine the timber balance using a separate forest land account. The problems of timber balance are related to the technical methods to assess timber balance and the cost of the work, quantitative determination of the profit, and qualitative determination of the profit. One main problem is to whether to define the quantitative profit as a sustainability of timber resources or difference in the allowable cut and outturn. The article discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the methods, and concludes that regardless of the method that is used to calculate the timber balance, profit or loss accounts have less exact nature in forestry than in other sectors. Replacing reliably calculated revenue surplus with operating result based on timber account would lead to tentative results.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown

The term ‘expenses’ is in forestry insufficiently defined, and its use in the balance sheet of forest management is unclear. In dynamic balance theory the actual working expenses and capital expenditure are separated. The article discusses what should be considered working expenses and what capital expenditure when dealing with certain costs of the forest management, for example costs of administration, cultivation of forests, log-floating channels, and roads and drainage of peatlands.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown

The field of work of the 7th National Forest Inventory was carried out during 1977–84. This report consists of the analysis of the forest resources, long-term development of forests and the results by ownership categories in Finland.

The area of forestry land, 26.4 million ha, has decreased slightly because of the increase of build-up areas and communication routes. Forest land, which is suitable to growing wood profitably, amounted 20.1 million ha. It has increased, although not as fast as earlier, due to drainage and fertilization of scrub and waste land swamps and the afforestation of agricultural land.

The growing stock volume was 1,660 million m³ and the estimated gross annual increment 68.4 million m³. A large quantity of young, rapidly growing stands, and fellings markedly below the increment, are the principal factors increasing the growing stock. The volume of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) has increased most but the greatest proportional increase has been in the volume of broadleaved trees.

The silvicultural quality of stands has improved and the increase in saw log tree volume has resulted in an increase in the total growing stock volume. The proportional volume of saw logs, however, has decreased. Both aging mature stands and postponed thinnings increase the risk of losses due to mortality and decay. Too dense stands retard the diameter growth of trees. The proportion of unsuccessful artificial regeneration has increased.

The area of private forests has slightly decreased, while companies and collective bodies have increased their ownership. Non-farmer private ownership already accounts for one half of the area of private forests. The silvicultural quality of company forests is best and the increase of the growing stock and its increment is proportionally greatest in these forests.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown
• Salminen, E-mail: ss@mm.unknown

Highly mechanized timber harvesting and timber logistics emit CO₂. In turn, the provided timber stores CO₂ from the atmosphere as biogenic carbon. This basic assumption resulted in the calculation of net carbon storage of supplied timber. For this, we first developed a formula that represents the carbon content of freshly harvested timber. Coniferous wood contains about 734 kg CO₂ m^-3 and deciduous wood about 1000 CO₂ m^-3. Contrary to this, CO₂ emissions from trucks, harvesters, and forwarders were calculated using the variable parameters for actual diesel consumption and the distance to the sawmill and constant parameters for the transport of the machine to the stand, lubricants, transport of operators, loading, and fabrication, supply, and maintenance. The method was tested on an actual harvest. The principal findings are that the method is practical, the net carbon storage of the supplied timber is reduced by 1.5% to 5% by harvesting and transport activities, and timber logistics is the largest contributor to emissions. The CO₂ emissions for harvesters and forwarders are about 4 kg CO₂ m^-3, and for downstream timber logistics across all assortments and distances is 11 kg CO₂ m^-3. We conclude that the emissions are low, vis-a-vis the storage capacity. Emissions and a standardized calculation model are imperative. The model developed here for mapping the net carbon storage of roundwood highlights the climate protection performance of timber and contributes to optimizing climate-friendly timber supply chains.

• Kaulen, KWF - Kuratorium für Waldarbeit und Forsttechnik e.V., Spremberger Straße 1, 64823 Groß-Umstadt, Germany; University of Freiburg, Chair of Forest Operations, Werthmannstr. 6, 79085 Freiburg, Germany https://orcid.org/0009-0006-2633-8132 E-mail: alexander.kaulen@kwf-online.de
• Engler, University of Freiburg, Chair of Forest Operations, Werthmannstr. 6, 79085 Freiburg, Germany https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2104-8209 E-mail: benjamin.engler@foresteng.uni-freiburg.de
• Purfürst, University of Freiburg, Chair of Forest Operations, Werthmannstr. 6, 79085 Freiburg, Germany https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9661-0193 E-mail: thomas.purfuerst@foresteng.uni-freiburg.de

• Strîmbu, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0588-2036 E-mail: victor.strimbu@nmbu.no
• Eid, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: tron.eid@nmbu.no
• Gobakken, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5534-049X E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no

• Gan, Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Texas A&M University, Texas, USA E-mail: j-gan@tamu.edu
• Smith, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada E-mail: cts@nn.ca

• Brække, Department of Forest Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway (AUN), P.O. Box 5044, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: finn.braekke@isf.nlh.no
• Salih, Department of Ecology and Environmental Research, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7072, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ns@nn.se

• Rohner, Renewable Resource Modeling, D-63477 Maintal, Germany E-mail: rohner@rrmodeling.de
• Böswald, Factor Consulting + Management AG, CH-8045 Zurich, Switzerland E-mail: kb@nn.ch