Articles containing the keyword 'art'

A shoot-root carbon:nitrogen allocation model, based on the two processes of transport and chemical conversion, is described and explored. The view is proposed that all allocation models, whether built for the purposes of theoretical investigation or practical application, should start with this irreducible framework. In the present implementation, the processes operate according to: for substrate sources, dependence on shoot and root sizes, with possible product inhibition; for transport, movement down a substrate concentration gradient; for substrate sinks or utilization, linear bisubstrate kinetics. The dynamic and equilibrium properties of the model are explored. Failure of this approach to allocation will indicate to the modeller that additional mechanisms to control the processes are needed, and the mode of failure will indicate the type of mechanisms required. Additional mechanisms are discussed which may involve hormones or teleonomic (goal-seeking) controls, and may be added to the irreducible framework. However, these additions should not replace the irreducible framework of transport and chemical conversion, because they do not in reality. Modifications to the basic model to reflect some possibilities such as ontogenesis with the transition from exponential growth towards a steady state or with the scaling of within-plant transport resistances, the influence of hormones, and active transport, are described.

• Thornley, E-mail: jt@mm.unknown

Process-based tree growth models are recognized to be flexible tools which are valuable for investigating tree growth in relation to changing environment or silvicultural treatments. In the context of forestry, we address two key modelling problems: allocation of growth which determines total wood production, and distribution of wood along the stem which determines stem form and wood quality. Growth allocation and distribution are the outcome of carbon translocation, which may be described by the Munch theory. We propose a simpler gradient process to describe the carbon distribution in the phloem of conifers. This model is a reformulation of a carbon diffusion-like process proposed by Thornley in 1972. By taking into account the continuity of the cambium along the stem, we obtain a one-dimensional reaction-diffusion model which describes both growth allocation between foliage, stem and roots, and growth distribution along the stem. Distribution of wood along the stem is then regarded as an allocation process at a smaller scale. A preliminary sensitivity analysis is presented. The model predicts a strong relationship between morphology and foliage-root allocation. It also suggests how empirical data, such as stem analysis, could be used to calibrate and validate allocation rules in process-based growth models.

• Deleuze, E-mail: cd@mm.unknown
• Houllier, E-mail: fh@mm.unknown

Linear programming (LP) is an important method for allocation of wood inventory stock. It is, for instance, used alone in tactical planning systems, which currently are in wide use at the higher hierarchical level in the functionally decentralized planning of the Finnish forest industry. Unfortunately, LP as a solution method has not been capable of handling spatial data that seem to characterize planning systems in geographical decentralization. In the present study, GIS was used to assimilate data from different wood procurement functions, to calculate transportation distances and cost figures, and to write the data in ASCII files, which were then used as input for the LP model. Using the experiments and methods of GIS on a planning system developed according to participatory planning, the results of this study suggest that the participatory method was faster than the conventional LP method, when solved using actual data. The participatory method was also capable of providing the same global optimum for a wood allocation problem. The implications of these results for improving operational and tactical planning of wood procurement in Finland are discussed.

• Palander, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown

In a silviculture experiment in east-central Maine, USA, natural regeneration was sampled to measure the effects of: (1) a range of partial harvest intensities, and (2) repeated partial harvest at one intensity. Under the first objective, five treatments were compared with residual basal areas ranging from 15 to 24 m² ha^-1 for trees ≥1.3 cm diameter at breast height. For the second objective, regeneration was evaluated after four harvests at 5-year intervals. Prior to harvests, the overstory of all the treated stands was dominated by Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr., Picea spp. A Dietr., and Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Eleven species or species groups were identified among the regeneration: A. balsamea, T. canadensis, Picea spp., Thuja occidentalis L., Pinus spp. L., Betula papyrifera Marsh., Acer rubrum L., Betula populifolia Marsh., Populus spp. L., Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. and Prunus serotina Ehrh. Regeneration abundance was measured as counts of seedlings or sprouts taller than 15 cm but with diameters less than 1.3 cm at breast height (1.37 m). Regardless of harvest treatment, total regeneration was profuse, ranging from over 25,000 to nearly 80,000 trees ha^-1. Regeneration was dominated by conifers with a total angiosperm component of 10 to 52 percent approximately 5 years after harvest and 11 to 33 percent after 10 years. Consequently, in forests of similar species composition, tree regeneration following partial harvests should be sufficiently abundant with an array of species to meet a variety of future management objectives.

• Brissette, E-mail: jb@mm.unknown

Comparisons were made between artificially and naturally regenerated stands in the south-eastern part of North Karelia, Finland, and naturally regenerated stands in the western parts of the Republic of Karelia, Russian Federation. The effect of soil fertility and silvicultural operations on the stand structure was also investigated.

The results of the study show clearly that when forests are artificially regenerated the stand structure includes less variation when compared with the stands naturally regenerated. Differences between the regeneration methods are clearer the more fertile the forest site is. Within the regeneration method there is also a clear trend in stand structure, with the variation decreasing the poorer the site. The effect of silvicultural operations, i.e. the cleaning of the sapling stand, has disappeared by the time of first thinning, although it appears to have a permanent effect on the dynamics of the tree species within a stand.

The variation of the stand structure can be regarded as an essential factor for the potential biodiversity of the stand also at its young vegetation succession stage. This capacity for maintaining the forest biodiversity, developed at the young vegetation succession stage, becomes increasingly important in subsequent vegetation succession stages. Natural regeneration provides improved possibilities for the operations preserving forest biodiversity, as it generates more dense stands with a wider variation in stand structure, compared to artificial regeneration.

• Uuttera, E-mail: ju@mm.unknown
• Maltamo, E-mail: mm@mm.unknown

Fill planting is a common procedure following reforestation in Finland. In 1990, 13% of the total of seedlings planted was used for fill planting. The objective of this study is (i) to survey the survival of fill-in seedlings and (ii) to estimate the spatial pattern of stands to evaluate the importance of fill-in seedlings in constituting the stocking of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands in Central and Northern Finland.

A survey of 63 artificially regenerated Scots pine stands was conducted in 1990. Stand densities varied from 950 to 3,925 seedlings/ha. The mean densities of originally planted, fill planted and naturally regenerated seedlings were 863, 639 and 791/ha, respectively. The survival of originally planted seedlings was 36% and that of fill-in seedlings 48%. Death rate of fill-in seedlings of Scots pine increased with longer times between original and fill planting. The survival rate of Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedlings was correlated with temperature sum. Height of the fill-in seedlings was less than that of the originally planted ones. Most stands had an even spatial distribution with the exception of sparsely populated stands, which were somewhat clustered. This indicates that dying of seedlings is not randomly spread. Because of poor survival, fill planting seems to be a risky business in most cases.

• Saarenmaa, E-mail: ls@mm.unknown
• Leppälä, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown

Change in dry matter partitioning, ¹⁴C-incorporation, and sink ¹⁴C-activity of 1.5-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings grown in growth chamber conditions were studied during a 91-day experiment. On five sampling dates, seedlings were labelled with ¹⁴CO₂ and whole-plant allocation patterns were determined. Intensively growing shoots modified the dry matter partitioning: during shoot growth the proportion of roots decreased but after that it increased. Based on their large proportion of dry matter, the needles (excluding current needles) were the strongest sink of carbon containing 40% of the incorporated ¹⁴C. Despite their small initial sink size, the elongating shoots (current main shoot + current branch) and their needles were the second strongest sink (30–40% of the total ¹⁴C) which reflects their high physiological activity. The proportion of ¹⁴C in the current year’s main shoot increased during shoot growth but decreased as the growth began to decline after 70 days. 10–20% of the total assimilated ¹⁴C was translocated to the roots. Laterals above 2nd order were the strongest sink in the root system, containing twice as much ¹⁴C as the other roots together. Alternation between shoot and root growth can be seen clearly: carbon allocation to roots was relatively high before and after the period of intensive shoot growth. Changes in root sink strength resulted primarily from changes in root sink activity rather than sink size.

• Lippu, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown

Different methods of sowing and planting of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) were compared on fertile sites in North Karelia (62°20’N, 29°35’E, 85–120 m a.s.l.). The planting material were 4-year-old bare-rooted transplants, 2-year-old bare-rooted seedlings, and 2-year-old containerized seedlings raised in plastic greenhouse. The sowing methods were band sowing and shelter sowing. Ground vegetation was controlled during the first growing season mechanically or chemically, or the control was omitted totally.

Planting of spruce gave better results than sowing. After eight growing seasons there were sowed seedlings left in 30% of the sowing pots. The average height of them was 35 cm. Seedling survival was best with large bare-rooted transplants (91%). Survival of containerized seedlings was 79% and of small bare-rooted transplants 71%. The average height of large bare-rooted transplants was 131 cm, of containerized seedlings 86 cm and small bare-rooted seedlings 68 cm.

Sowing is not an advisable method for regeneration of spruce due to the small survival rate and slow initial development when ground vegetation is controlled only once. Also 2-year-old seedlings gave a satisfactory result in regeneration. Seedlings raised in greenhouse were more sensitive to frost damage than seedlings grown on open ground.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

• Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown

Based on a survey of world literature it is concluded that 1) the better -researched epidemic forest pathosystems are caused by anthropogenic factors, 2) the systems most likely have a polygenic background, and 3) resistance breeding should maintain polygenic resistance with restrictive incorporation of oligogenic resistance. Corresponding objectives are valid in breeding programs of presently balanced pathosystems, which may turn epidemic if man causes changes in the gene pool and alters critical environmental conditions.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

• Weissenberg, E-mail: kw@mm.unknown

Based on literature this paper describes the natural afforestation of Finland that took place after the last ice age and the changes which have taken place during the last 10,000 years. The origin and development of the vegetation and trees are related to the changes in the edaphic and climatic factors. The first tree species to arrive in Finland were the primary colonizing species, birch and Scots pine. The appearance of Norway spruce dates back to about 5000 B.P. There have been great changes in the species composition of Finnish forests during the last several thousands of years but some 2,000–3,000 years ago the various species reached their present balance. The epoch of naural forests, which had lasted some 9,500 years, came to a conclusion, however, when man started to have a marked effect on the forest’s development 300–400 years ago.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

• Alho, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown

Invertebrates of young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands were preliminarily studied along a gradient of industrial air pollutants in Harjavalta, south-western Finland. Bark samples and net samples on pine branches and needles were taken in May–June, 1987. The number of aphids on needles was highest near the industrial plants. The number of mites in bark was positively correlated with the increasing distance from the pollutant source. Detrended correspondence analysis ordination calculated according to the bark invertebrates showed that the sampling sites of the zones far from the emission source formed a distinct group while those of the zones near the source were relatively widely dispersed indicating disturbances in faunal structure.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

• Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
• Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown

The Finnish forest was elevated into an appreciated artistic motif by Werner Holmberg with his picture ”The Finnish conifer forest” in 1858. The second significant period was during national romanticism in the 1980’s, when the decorative beauty of the winter forests was discovered. At the turn of the century, the forest obtained a central national symbolic significance, and many leading artists regarded increased cuttings as a rape of the forests. Since that period, individual artists have succeeded in bringing new features in the art history of our forests.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Reitala, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown

The earliest manor parks, which are a special form of cultivated forests, were created at the end of the 18th century. The surrounding of the main buildings was divided into two parts, an aesthetic park and yard serving household and economic purposes. Early in the 19th century, large parks were created which represented dominant aesthetic ideals but, on the other hand, formed a ”wild” counterpart to the structured inner world of the main building. A good example is Ratula Manor and its park, which represent the diversity of the cultivated forest of the 19th century manors.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Lönnqvist, E-mail: bl@mm.unknown

Four teams of two workers were time-studied in clearcutting of a cypress plantation and three teams in sulky skidding. The heart rate was recorded every 30 s. The average heartrate in timber cutting was 117.5 ± 13.4 P/min, and it was mainly dependent on worker’s working capacity. Average work load index was 41 ± 3% when working at 97% performance. The production rate was then 2.5 m³/h (crew). In sulky skidding the heart rate was lower, 106 ± 1.1 P/min, as well as the work load (WLI 30 ± 1%) and performance rating (87%). The low production rate (1.1 m³/h) (crew)) over 45 m distance is mainly due to under-dimensioned load size. The energy expenditure in timber cutting was 21.4 kJ/min and in sulky skidding 16.3 kJ/min. Daily energy expenditure was 15.0 MJ/d, and most of the timber cutters belonged to the class ”exceptionally active”.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

• Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
• Bakena, E-mail: eb@mm.unknown
• Mboya, E-mail: gm@mm.unknown
• Minja, E-mail: tm@mm.unknown
• Ngerageze, E-mail: tn@mm.unknown
• Ntahompagaze, E-mail: jn@mm.unknown

In laboratory studies the heartwood content seems to be the only natural property of a wood of different tree species influencing the decay resistance. Moistening and drying by diffusion happen quite slowly. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood takes moisture by capillary action quicker than pine heartwood and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) wood. Swelling and shrinkage are also greatest in pine sapwood. Impregnation of pine sapwood can give it better hydrophobic and dimensional stability than that of pine heartwood.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

• Kärenlampi, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown

The natural resistance of Finnish-grown Pinus sylvestris L. heartwood to Macrotermitinae termites was tested in Zambia in graveyard conditions. The heartwood exhibited some natural resistance but durability was, however, far from practical immunity. There was significant tree-to-tree variation in the resistance of heartwood of P. Sylvestris.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Löyttyniemi, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown
• Uusvaara, E-mail: ou@mm.unknown

The influence of horizontal whole-body vibration of fairly low intensity alone and combined with the mental load and motor action typical for the forest machine drive on heart rate variability (HRV), respiration rate (RR) and heart rate (HR) was studied by testing five subjects. Horizontal vibration had an influence on HR, HRV and RR. ’Control activities’ had the most influence on RR and HRV, but some influence on HR, too. ’Moving the control devices’ (motor action) gave the same response in HR as ’control activities’, but not in HRV and RR. ’Control activities’ together with ’vibration’ had a more effect on HRV and RR than these two factors singly, but not on HR. The possibilities of using these variables in field studies are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Harstela, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
• Piirainen, E-mail: kp@mm.unknown

The paper presents a method based on two phase sampling and applicable to forest inventories. The first phase estimates are obtained from satellite imagery and, if required, from extra material such as maps. Second phase estimates are measured in the field. The method is flexible and also applicable to compartmentwise forest inventories. The experiments were based on six study areas with 439 relascope plots. The correlation coefficients between first and second stage estimates varied largely according to the study area.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown
• Häme, E-mail: th@mm.unknown
• Paananen, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown

The concepts of the terms compartment and compartment-wise forest inventory have been studied empirically by repeated delineation and intensive systematic plot samples. The material consisted of 16 study areas of some 8–90 hectares in size in Southern Finland and of more than 1,000 relascope plots. Stands and compartments were found to be rather heterogenous. Alternative photographs, working techniques and test persons were studied. An endeavour for better accuracy in compartment inventories is recommended.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown

The role played by the medium and fine silt and clay contents in determining the quartiles and the degree of stratification from a cumulative particle-size curve was studied in order to determine what time savings could be made in the sedimentation phase of soil mechanical analysis. The clay content of the samples was, in general, found to be so small that it did not affect the parameters studied. In contrast to this, the medium and fine silt content affected the lower quartile of the distribution for many soils classified as finer than medium sand. Consequently, only the omission of the determination of the clay fraction can be recommended as a time-saving measure in mechanical analysis.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Lipas, E-mail: el@mm.unknown

The particle size distribution affects several properties of the soil, thus, the ability to define the texture type of the soil as accurately as possible in field conditions is essential. The soil particle size classification devised by Atterberg (1912) is used in Finnish forestry. The study is based on a small laboratory material. The correlation between some characteristics of the soil particle size distribution, field capacity and cation exchange capacity were determined.

The particle size characteristics such as the relative proportion of different particle sizes, average particle size (Md) and parameters depicting the degree of sorting were determined. The relative proportion of soil particles below 0.06 mm correlated best with both field capacity and cation exchange capacity. Similarly, the average particle size and the degree of sorting correlated well with the field capacity and the cation exchange capacity.

The use of sorting characteristics is not well-suited to the type of soil sample material containing a high proportion of particles of varying size as was used in this material. Such characteristics are probably more easily applicable to the fine sand and sand sediments which are predominant in Finnish forest soils. The most useful particle size distribution characteristics in soils having a great variation in particle sizes were the average particle size and the relative proportion of silt and clay. Thus, the nutrient and water status of the soil can be predicted to some extent by examining the percentage of silt and clay, average particle size and the degree of sorting.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown

The aim of the study was to find out the technical and economical applicability of seismic survey methods of sub-surface earth investigations in forest road planning. Two seismographs, SOIL-TEST MD 1 and BISON 1570, were tested in studyin 31 cuts and 3 gravel areas. The devices proved to be usable in field conditions. Sounding one spot costs about 75 Fmk and methods’ rentability is greatly based on the ration between expected and unexpected events, which depends on the areal geology. It is profitable to purchase the device especially if digging out of unexpected bedrock causes high costs.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown

The study deals with the variation in the proportion of heartwood  in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) both within and between stems as examined on the basis of literature. Special attention is paid to an application, in which on the basis of the diameter of pulpwood bolts, efforts are made to predict the proportion of heartwood in the total volume of bolts. It is shown that the method, even when based on homogenous material of 564 Norway spruce and Scots pine bolts, easily leads to wrong conclusions concerning the proportion of heartwood.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown

The Sinivuori Nature Park, located in the northeast part of the county of Häme in Southern Finland represents the rare fertile forest lands in the country, and belong partly to the so-called centre of herb‐rich forests of Häme. Sinivuori is one of the smallest nature reserves in Finland (64 ha). The detailed vegetation analysis was performed in 1969, supplemented by earlier and later observations. The area was divided into 69 one-hectare squares for the study of the flora and vegetation.

The most common rock in the park is mica schist. The pH of the soil is relatively high, in average 6.6. Thermal-time sum is 1,100–1,200. The vegetation differs to a large extent from the surrounding areas. 169 vascular plants were found in the area, some of which very rare in the area. The paper lists the plants and their abundance in the area, and the vegetation is described by the forest types. Distribution maps are presented for the species.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Rutanen, E-mail: kr@mm.unknown

This paper reports spot sowing experiments of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The seeds were either covered with coarse sand, tramped in the substrate or sowed without any covering, 30 seeds in each treatment in 70 replications. The site was of Vaccinium type with sandy soil. The germination percentage was 81 and 91 on the respective years. The development of seedlings was observed for 3–4 years.

The results indicate that both tramping and covering the seeds to some extent increased the number of seedlings and improved the early development. The highest numbers of seedlings were recorded in the first growing season, after which there was 23 seedlings/100 seeds in the uncovered spots, 27 seedlings in the covered spots and 31 seedlings in the tramped spots in the experiment sowed in 1965.

Mortality of the seedlings was highest between the first and second growing season, and empty spots increased with the time. There was no difference in mortality between the sowing methods, but the number of seedlings after first growing season affected the result. Under favourable conditions four seedlings per spot seemed enough to secure the survival of minimum one seedling per spot during the three first growing seasons. In poor conditions seven seedlings was needed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown
• Räsänen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown

This article is a review of an article ’Fundamental studies to improve production of Pinus radiata and other pines’ by Donald, D.G.M.

• Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown

The time interval between final felling and plantation means a waste of time and thus a production loss, and may lead to lush growth of ground cover and hardwood sprouts, which increases expenses in forest management. The objective of this study was to determine the length of time between final felling and artificial regeneration in private forests in the forest districts of Uusimaa-Häme in Southern Finland and Pohjois-Häme in Central Finland. The material consists of a sample of 150 plans of the 952 cutting and regeneration plans in the district of Uusimaa-Häme and a sample of 140 plans of the 1,102 plans in Pohjois-Häme.

The time lag between final cutting and seeding or planting was on average 1.4 years in Pohjois-Häme district and 0.7 years in Uusimaa-Häme. In the latter district, 56% of the logged area was regenerated in the spring immediately following the cutting, and 84% not later than in the second spring. In Pohjois-Häme, 29% of the harvested area was regenerated immediately in the first spring following cutting, and 79% not later than in the third spring following cutting.

In Pohjois-Häme, the interval was shortest in the smallest forest holdings, and longest in the largest holdings with the largest regeneration areas. The length seems to depend mainly on the size of the regeneration area. In Uusimaa-Häme district, the interval was shortest in the smallest holdings, rather short in the largest, and longest in the intermediate-size forest properties. Seeding with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was used in almost all regeneration areas.

The forest owners had mainly carried out the regeneration work themselves. In the Pohjois-Häme area, the interval was shorter when the district forestry board regenerated the area. 35% of the regenerated areas had required supplementary planting in Pohjois-Häme, and 47% in the Uusimaa-Häme area. Supplementary planting was more common in areas regenerated later after the cutting. In Pohjois-Häme, according to the reports of the forest owners, 75% of the regenerated areas required tending during the first three years, in Uusimaa-Häme, 80%.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown
• Autio, E-mail: aa@mm.unknown
• Vehkaoja, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown

This paper describes the preliminary results of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seeding and planting trials on drained peat soils.

The results showed that a perpared peat surface was a better surface for seeding than the unprepared one. Planting of 2+1-year seedlings succeeded better than planting 1-year seedlings. Planting on the turf gave better survival than planting on the unprepared soil surface. The whole growing season was suitable time for planting Scots pine seedlings except May when the peat soil under the surface was still frozen.

Using fertilizers in connection with planting was surveyed in two ways. Mortality of seedlings increased when they were top-dressed with NPK fertilizer. Using a so-called spot fertilizing with several combinations of fertilizers resulted in K and N tending to increase the mortality of seedlings, but P decreasing mortality.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown
• Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown
• Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown

Understanding the growth of trees is the prerequisite for meaningful forest management. Hence the studies on the ways the trees grow is important. The growth of roots and sprouts was studied by Larix leptolesis, Pinus silvestris, Betula pendula, Robinia pseudoacasia, Populus euramericana, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Quercus borealis and some other species. The results of still ongoing experiments on pine, birch and larch are presented for root and shoot growth.

The results indicate that the amount of light or shade the tree is having plays an important role in the growth. Hence some tree species are better adapted to shade than others, there are differences in their growth depending whether they are in light or in shade. 

• Lyr, E-mail: hl@mm.unknown
• Hoffmann, E-mail: gh@mm.unknown

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

Forest Service begun the aerial mapping of the state forests in northern Finland in 1948. This presentation describes the state of the work, practices and methods of the work.

• Olenius, E-mail: lo@mm.unknown

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the development of aerial mapping, its principles and methods. The use of aerial photographs and the costs of the method is discussed.

• Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown

The article is based on the writer’s visits in the area in 1933 and 1939. Pyhätunturi national park was established in 1938. The fell of Pyhätunturi rises up to 540 meters above the sea level, and 357 meters above the surrounding area. The soil is predominantly stony, and the rock is quartzite. The climate is continental with low rainfall. This results in a barren area, where array of plant species is limited with the exception of few gorges with fertile river valleys. The forests have remained mostly in natural state.

Vegetation is arranged in three zones: forested area, subalpine fell birch area and alpine bare top of the fell. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forms timberline more often than Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Coniferous forests rise up to 365 meters on the northern slopes and up to about 385 on the southern slopes of the fell. It is followed by fell birch zone (Betula tortuosa, now Betula pubescens subsp. Czerepanovii) up to about 450-475 meters on the eastern and northern slopes, and 475-490 meters on the western slopes. The most common forest site type is Empetrum-Myrtillus site type. Herb-rich spruce swamps along the rivers have highest diversity of species. The article describes the plant species found in forests, peatlands, fell birch zone and top of the fell in detail. In all 162 different vascular plant species and 16 non-indigenous species were found in the area.

The article includes an abstract in German.

• Kalliola, E-mail: rk@mm.unknown

The article is a treatise on use of aerial photography in forestry and its prodpective applications in Finland, based on the writers visit to Techniche Hohschule Dresden in Germany and experiences in his work in Forest Service.

Optimal conditions and principals of aerial photography are described. There is potential in use of aerial photography in Finland. The terrain is relatively flat, and large areas, especially in Lapland, are inadequately mapped. However, to fulfil the current requirements for forest maps, aerial photography should be carried out as aerial stereo photography at a sufficiently large scale. At a certain scale terrain survey becomes cheaper than aerial photography.

In forestry, aerial photography cannot substitute terrain survey, but it complements it. Aerial photographs could, for instance, form a photo archive of a region or be used as a basis for planning drainage of peatlands. In research, aerial stereo photography could become a new discipline.

The article has a German summary.

• Sarvas, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes factors that should be taken into account in forest regeneration. 

• Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes inspection of forest regeneration of mineral soil forest types and drained peatlands, and inspection of ditches. 

• Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown

A vegetation analysis was performed in Muhkuri experimental area of the Forest Research Institute. The area is located in southwest Finland near city of Turku. The dominant tree species of the area is oak (Quercus robur L.) which can be found in all the area. Common woody species are also aspen (Populus tremula L.), mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia L.), hazel (Corylus avellana L.), juniper (Juniperus communis L.) and mountain currant (Ribes alpinum L.). A total of 198 vascular plants were found in the area, 34 of which were common in most parts of the area. Typical vegetation of different parts of the area is described. Finally, a list of all plant species is presented in the article.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Auer, E-mail: aa@mm.unknown

Broadcast sowing on snow was relatively new method in the beginning of the 20^th century in Finland, and the experiences of regeneration were diverse. The aim of the survey was to study the success rate of regeneration in the oldest and largest areas regenerated with this sowing method in Tuomarniemi district. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was the most common tree species, but also Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) were used in broadcast sowing on snow.

According to the study, the success of broadcast sowing on snow was as good as patch sowing and sowing in furrows in the sites typical for Tuomarniemi. The regeneration areas were often drained peatlands or paludified lands. When sowing is done using Norway spruce seeds, site preparation either by broadcast burning or scalping with hoe is recommended. Mixed sowing with pine and spruce seldom succeeded due to the differences in site requirements of the species and growth of seedlings. Sowing of Scots pine succeeded well on the drained peatlands. Sowing should be done some years after draining to let the peat dry and sink. Site preparation is needed in sites growing Polytrichum-moss. Broadcast burned areas larger than 10 hectares seemed to regenerate poorer than sites in average, possibly due to dryness of the sites. Trials with European larch were successful, and the growth of the seedlings acceptable despite the sites being relatively poor for the species.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Borg, E-mail: lb@mm.unknown

The Jokioinen Estate was established in 1562 when king Erik XIV of Sweden granted a large area around Jokioinen in the southwest Finland to Klas Kristersson Horn. The estate had several landlords until it was acquired in 1872 by Jokkis Stock Company, and finally sold to the government in 1918. The forestry of the estate was influenced by complications concerning the ownership of the land. A part of the tenants of the estate had originally been independent and owned their farms, but some farms were so-called family-right-farms, which were inherited from father to son, but the farmer did not own the land. A third type of farmers were ordinary tenants, who were directly dependent on the landlord. Especially ambiguous was the family-right-farmers’ right to harvest timber from the forests. The Finnish government acquired the estate to solve the problems and gave the tenants right to buy their farms.

Until the 18th century most of the farmers in Jokioinen area practiced shifting cultivation. This method of farming influenced strongly the forests, and continued until the increased market price of timber made it unprofitable. The forests were also the source of fuel wood for both the farmers and the landlord. The estate had own saw-mill industry since the 18th century. In 1871 a trained forester was hired for the estate. When the government acquired the estate, it comprised 32,000 hectares of land. The state retained 7,000 hectares of the forests. They were managed by a trained forester and administrated under the Board of Agriculture.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Tähtinen, E-mail: ot@mm.unknown

The present study proposes to calculate the economic sequence of two of Finland’s three main tree species, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) when planted on Oxalias-Myrtillus type sites where both species are equally suitable, on biological grounds. In addition, the accuracy and applicability of the present Finnish yield tables to an economic comparison is tested. Benefit/cost ratio was selected as criterion of profitableness. All future net incomes and costs were discounted into the planting time and added together. The ratio between the discounted net revenues and the discounted investment costs (later called profit ratio) was the criterion. There is no reliable method to forecast the future wood prices, therefore two price ratios, birch veneer timber to spruce pulpwood and birch cordwood to spruce pulpwood, were chosen as free variables. The economic sequence of the tree species was determined as the function of these variables.

The main conclusions are, first, that under the present price ratios spruce appears to be the better choice for the forest owner, and the most promising policy for changing the situation seems to decrease the production costs of plants in birch nurseries. Second, the present Finnish yield tables are not consistent or accurate enough to enable any sufficiently reliable economic comparisons of tree species in artificial regeneration. The possible error of difference between two rather uncertain estimates is big. More work is needed to construct a uniform system of yield tables covering all main tree species, all site types, all macro climate conditions and all types of regeneration.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
• Tiililä, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown

Farm forestry in northern Ostrobothnia has met different kinds of obstacles that decrease its profitability, some national, some local. One of the later is partitioning of land. The purpose of this investigation was to survey the division of farm land in the coastal municipalities of northern Ostrobothnia in Finland, where the conditions are among the most unfavourable in the country in this respect. The material used in the investigation was collected in a previous study about the structure of the farms in the area. First part of the paper summarises the history of partitioning of land in Finland.

The results show that division of the woodlots of a farm are in the coastal municipalities of northern Ostrobothnia very disadvantageous for forestry. The average distance of a woodlot to the farmhouse is 8.3 km, but there is a great variation between the municipalities, and the distance varies from 30 to 1.9 km. The form of the lots, as the long ribbon-like woodlots in the municipality of Liminka, complicates often practical forestry. In addition, the number of separate woodlots is high, in average 9.2 per farm.

The great distance of the woodlots from the main farms hinders the use of forests and diminishes the financial result of forestry. Unfavourable form of the woodlots posts similar hindrances to harvesting of timber and forest management as the long distances and high number of separate plots. The problem is heightened by the abundance of peatlands in relation to productive forest lands in the area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Alho, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown

The size of the field and the ditching on it as well as the condition of the field at the time of the surrender of Porkkala area (from Finland to Russia) play an important role on how far the natural regeneration of the fields has progressed.

Larger open fields have naturally regenerated only on sides where the surrounding forest can spread the seeds or the thicket of saplings has reached, whereas small parcels of fields have normally been fully forested. Most important species have been e.g. silver birch and pubescent birch, grey and common alders and European aspen as well as pine and spruce. The broad leaved species are dominant.     

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.

• Kalela, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown

The Second World War revealed some weaknesses that affect also peacetime planning of military defence in Finland. One of the shortages were lack of maps applicable in military purposes in Northern Finland.

The state forests are mainly situated in the north. Consequently, cartographic material of Finnish Forest Service may be modified with little extra work for military purposes. Best suited for the purpose are forestry maps of different forest districts that have scales ranging from 1:20,000 to 1:100,000. In addition, general maps in the scale of 1:100,000 or 1:200,000 are available. The article discusses further the additions that can be made in the maps.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown

The aim of the study was to find out what are the causes of damage in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands and the frequency of different kinds of injuries, which are then discussed in relation to the silvicultural state and management of the stands in comparison to ideal forests. Sample plots were studied in over 80-year old Scots pine dominated stands in mineral soil sites of different forest types in Northern Finland in the area of Perä-Pohjola. 10–40 trees were chosen as sample trees in each sample plot. The sample trees were felled, and the diameter, height of crown and injuries outside and inside of the stem were recorded.

Length of knot-free part of the stem was higher in the dominant trees and in older age classes of the trees. The form of the stem becomes broader and rounder with the age. The crowns are, however, longer in Northern Finland compared to Southern Finland. In management of Scots pine stands, all trees diseased by Scots pine blister rust (Cronartium flaccidum) should be removed. The disease is common in Northern Finland, and the number of diseased trees increases as the stands get older. Decay was more common in trees that had fire wounds. In general, injuries decreased the length and diameter growth of the trees. From the dominant trees should only injured and diseased trees removed in the thinnigs. Codominant trees can be left to grow when spare trees are needed to replace missing dominant trees. Detailed instruction of selection of the removed trees are given for each age class.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Tikka, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown

The article is a review on the research about forest regeneration in Finland, executed in the Forest Research Institute. The climate affects the results of different regeneration methods. Thus, sample plots have been established in different parts of the country. In 1933 there was a total of 386 sample plots around the country. To compare the effect of weather conditions in the regeneration, sample plots have been established in successive years. Other conditions that affect forest regeneration are soil, forest site type, tree species, time from the felling of the stand, and tending of the seedling stand. Of the 386 sample plots 245 were planting experiments and 141 sowing experiments.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

• Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown

The result of forest valuation depends heavily on the interest rate and hence determining the rate of interest for forest is the one of the most important tasks of forest valuation.

When defining the interest rate for forests, we need to take into account not only the common interest rate in the country, but also other factors. Those are for example the increase in timber price. By calculating the land expectation value we assume that costs for felling, regeneration and other management will rise by same percent.

The article presents the common formula of land expectation value and discusses its pros and cons. Because of the bad condition of Finnish forests, the forest valuation has not been used widely in practice and hence also the research on theme has been minor. The development of the forests in future will make the theme more relevant. 

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

• Heikkilä, E-mail: th@mm.unknown

The distribution and occurrence of plant species, including trees, in the nature show that living and splendor of them is constrained by climatic factors. They have their minimum, optimum and maximum for the temperatures they can survive in. The tree species, at least mostly are divided into different varieties in different areas of the world so that the species are most suitable for the climatic conditions of their site.

The article presents the main climatic zones with their tree species according L. Ilvessalo and they suitability to Finland. More accurate areas of suitable species are also listed. 

The referred results show that alongside the climatic conditions, the conditions of soil and relief must be taken into account when using exotic tree species for forestry purposes.  

• Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown

The paper deals with the ground vegetation of the barren coniferous forests of Åland Islands and seeks to describe its special vegetation characters with general features. The study is based on data collected during summers from 1918-1922 on Åland Islands.  Work presents the forest types of Åland Islands classified according Cajander (1909) with their typical species.

The Ålandian coniferous forests seem to have a low number of species. This is because they are mostly old and closed, and have been developing for a long time without human induced disturbances from outside. Some changes have occurred due to forest fires. There is very few traces of non-native species in the forests. If some are found, they have not been able to regenerate or distribute widely.   

• Palmgren, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown

The article describes the Ålandian vegetation of most typical habitats with greatest detail. The primary goal of the paper is to find out which deciduous species are native in the Åland Islands and hence can be seen as indicator plants for the living conditions. In addition to determining the native species of the Åland Islands, the study seeks to determine the human influence to the vegetation systems: which species are original, which have been introduced by agricultural activities, and how has the human activity influenced the abundance of the species.

• Palmgren, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown

The most abundant tree species occur in different variants in different geographical regions. They differ in their genetic, biological and partly also in morphological characters, however making clear difference between these subspecies is not possible. The different subspecies have developed according the respective areas' climatic and soil conditions, developing adaptive characters. These subspecies play a great role in practical forest management, since they differ in for forestry important characters, such as cold tolerance or stem form. 

The subspecies hybridize with each other in areas where their distribution areas overlap. In these areas the subspecies cannot be always clearly defined.   

• Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown

The article is an abridged version of an essay published in the “Lännetär” (a book published in Finnish on the occasion of the 50^th birthday of Professor E. N. Setälä). The article presents the main points of the plant migration to Finland after the glacial period. The research method was based on J. A. Palmen’s work on flyways of the birds. Some results are achieved through plant paleontological studies, others rely on the current distribution of the species.

Some species, such as trees birch, spruce and pine have migrated widely in Finland and there isn’t any specific migration way to be found. Those species do not have any specific preconditions for their habitat and adapt also to barren soils.  Species that require more specific habitats can migrate only through ways where those preconditions are available. 

• Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown

An occurrence of Cronartium Peridermium Strobi Kleb has been found in a privately owned garden in Tampere. They are found in several types of currant that the fungus uses as alternate host. The fungi have earlier been found on eastern white pine and now seemingly for the first time on stone pine. 

• Elfving, E-mail: ke@mm.unknown

Questions of the small size of non-industrial private forest (NIPF) holdings in Finland are considered and factors affecting their partitioning are analysed. This work arises out of Finnish forest policy statements in which the small average size of holdings has been seen to have negative influence on the economics of forestry. A literature survey indicates that the size of holdings is an important factor determining the costs of logging and silvicultural operations, while its influence on the timber supply is slight.

The empirical data are based on a sample of 314 holdings collected by interviewing forest owners in 1980–86. In 1990–91 the same holdings were resurveyed by means of a postal inquiry and partly by interviewing the forest owners. The principal objective was to collect data to assist in quantifying ownership factors that influence partitioning among different kinds of NIPF holdings. Thus, the mechanism of partitioning was described and a maximum likelihood logistic regression model was constructed using seven independent holding and ownership variables.

One out of four holdings had undergone partitioning in conjunction with a change in ownership, one fifth among family owned holdings and nearly a half among jointly owned holdings. The results of the logistic regression model indicate, for instance, that the odds on partitioning is about three times greater for jointly owned holdings than for family owned ones. Also, the probabilities of partitioning were estimated and the impact of independent dichotomous variables on the probability of partitioning ranged between 0.02 and 0.01. The low value of Hosmer-Lemeshow test statistics indicates a good fit of the model, and the rate of correct classification was estimated to be 88% with a cut-off point of 0.5.

The average size of holdings undergoing ownership changes decreased from 29.9 ha to 28.7 ha over the approximate interval 1983–90. In addition, the transition probability matrix showed that the trends towards smaller size categories mostly concerned the small size categories. The results can be used in considering the effects of the small size holdings for forestry and if the purpose is to influence partitioning through forest or rural policy.

• Ripatti, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown

The paper examines the needs, premises and criteria for effective public participation in tactical forest planning. A method for participatory forest planning utilizing the techniques of preference analysis, professional expertise and heuristic optimization is introduced. The techniques do not cover the whole process of participatory planning, but are applied as a tool constituting the numerical core for decision support. The complexity of multi-resource management is addressed by hierarchical decision analysis which assesses the public values, preferences and decision criteria toward the planning situation. An optimal management plan is sought using heuristic optimization. The plan can further be improved through mutual negotiations, if necessary. The use of the approach is demonstrated with an illustrative example. Its merits and challenges for participatory forest planning and decision making are discussed and a model for applying it in general forest planning context is depicted. By using the approach, valuable information can be obtained about public preferences and the effects of taking them into consideration on the choice of the combination of standwise treatment proposals for a forest area. Participatory forest planning calculations, carried out by the approach presented in the paper, can be utilized in conflict management and in developing compromises between competing interests.

• Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
• Loikkanen, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown
• Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
• Pykäläinen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown

A theoretical framework to analyse the growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is presented. Material exchange processes and internal processes that transport, transform and consume materials are identified as the components of growth. Hierarchical system is lined out. Momentary uptake of material at a single exchange site depends on the environmental condition next to the exchange site, the internal state of the biochemical system of the plant and the structure of the plant. The internal state depends on the exchange flows over period of time and the structural growth depends on the internal state. The response of these processes to the fluxes is controlled by the genetic composition of the plant.

The theoretical framework is formulated into a mathematical model. A concept of balanced internal state was applied to describe the poorly known internal processes. Internal substrate concentrations were assumed to remain constant but tissue-specific. A linear relationship between the quantity of foliage and wood cross-sectional area was assumed to describe balanced formation of structure. The exchange processes were thus described as a function of external conditions. The stand level interactions were derived from shading and effects of root density on nutrient uptake.

The approach was tested at different levels of hierarchy. Field measurements indicated that the hypothesis of the linear relationship described well the regularities between foliage and sapwood of a tree within a stand when measured at functionally corresponding height. There was considerable variation in the observed regularities in the range of geographic occurrence of Scots pine. Model simulations gave a realistic description of stand development in Southern Finland. The same model was also able to describe growth differences in Lapland after considering the effect of growing season length in the parameter values. Simulations to South Russia indicate stronger deviation from the observed patterns.

The simulations suggest interesting features of stand development. They indicate strong variability in the distribution of carbohydrates between tree parts during stand development. Internal circulation of nutrients and the reuse of the same transport structure by various needle generations had a strong influence on the simulation results.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Nikinmaa, E-mail: en@mm.unknown

The investigation examines the development potential of small sawmills in rural Finland. Development is defined with qualitative bias, given small sawmills’ limited possibilities for large-scale investments. Potential is defined in terms of the behavioural limitations to development. The investigation assumes that small sawmill entrepreneurial behaviour is essentially satisficing, and that the concept of bounded rationality is applicable. The empirical material concerns a random sample of 399 sawmills from all regions in Finland collected in connection with the 1990 small sawmill inventory.

Three sets of enterprise/entrepreneurial attributes are constructed using principal component analyses: i) entrepreneurial skills & organization, ii) small sawmill outlets, and iii) information attributes. Development potential is measured by employing discriminant analyses to test these attributes against four a priori sawmill classifications: i) sawmill production structure, ii) entrepreneurial development intentions, ii) sawmill operating environments, and iv) sawmilling as a livelihood. Each of these analyses contributes to an understanding of the entrepreneur-enterprise dialectic.

Based on the use of Pred’s behavioural matrix, small sawmill entrepreneurs’ quantity & quality of information and their ability to use information are examined with respect to sawmill typologies. In this way, the entrepreneur-enterprise dialectic is given a third dimension, that of the entrepreneurs’ partial space. The analysis is therefore able to examine development potential from the standpoint of an entrepreneur-enterprise-environment (partial space) trialectic.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Selby, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
• Petäjistö, E-mail: lp@mm.unknown

The investigation concerns the nature of the dialectic relationships between small-scale entrepreneurs in peripheral areas and their business environments.

The investigation is weighted towards a theoretical and philosophical examination of the ways in which the behaviours of real-world entrepreneurs relate to their business environments. The theoretical framework first examines the assumption of intended or bounded rationality, which recognizes that human beings are in possession of imperfect information and imperfect ability, so that their perceived world is only an approximation of the real world. Following this, an epistemology is sought which enables the individual entrepreneur to be considered as the creator of his own world, and to compare this private world to the shared context of a wider set of spatial and social relations. Such an epistemology is found in existential phenomenology, which is subjected to a critical review.

As an empirical case study, the investigation examines the small sawmill entrepreneurs of North Karelia, Finland. The empirical investigation examines the aspects of the small-scale entrepreneurs’ business attitudes, perceived business environments, and their ability to use business-related information. The existential man-environment dialectic is revealed by relating these attributes to the entrepreneurs’ social setting and the level of entrepreneurship as revealed by the sawmill typology.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Selby, E-mail: js@mm.unknown

The effect of different fertilizer treatments on the invertebrate fauna on coniferous forest soil were investigated during the years 1979-83 both in field and in laboratory experiments. Fertilizers tested were urea (both alone and with P and K), ammonium nitrate and ashes. Ash-treatment was also controlled by raising the pH at the same level with Ca(OH)₂.

Both ashes and urea resulted in considerable changes in the soil fauna. Nematodes, especially bacterial feeders, increased temporarily. Some families of Coleoptera invaded the urea-treated plots. Enchytraceid worms and several microarthropod species decreased, as well as the total animal biomass. Ash-treatment influenced more slowly than did urea-fertilizing, but it caused more permanent changes. Ammonium nitrate with lime had little influence in the field. All fertilizers affected more strongly when mixed with soil in laboratory. pH alone proved to explain most of the changes observed, but nitrogen as a nutrient also plays role independently of acidity.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Huhta, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown
• Hyvönen, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown
• Koskenniemi, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown
• Vilkamaa, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown
• Kaasalainen, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown
• Sulander, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown

• Zhang, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7876-9635 E-mail: shaohui.zhang@uef.fi
• Korhonen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9352-0114 E-mail: lauri.korhonen@uef.fi
• Nummenmaa, Tampere University, Kalevantie 4, FI-33100 Tampere, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9896-0338 E-mail: timo.nummenmaa@tuni.fi
• Bianchi, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9544-7400 E-mail: simone.bianchi@luke.fi
• Maltamo, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9904-3371 E-mail: matti.maltamo@uef.fi

• Jåstad, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1089-0284 E-mail: eirik.jastad@nmbu.no
• Nagel, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3171-0262 E-mail: niels.oliver.nagel@nmbu.no
• Hu, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0001-5993 E-mail: junhui.hu@nmbu.no
• Rørstad, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: per.kristian.rorstad@nmbu.no

The sustainability of native forests in Sub-Saharan Africa depends on the diversification of sources to generate bioenergy, and Eucalyptus spp. wood has been highlighted. However, the determination of energy quality parameters has been a challenge to enable plantation wood to generate energy. The research assessed the ash content of radial and longitudinal samples of Eucalyptus grandis (Hill) clone with different ages and growth sites. Samples were collected in three pre-established plots in the center of Mozambique. Five trees were cut down in each plot and six discs were removed from each tree. Grinded samples with <0.5 mm particle size were generated from the heartwood and sapwood of each disk to determine the ash content. Wood from 7-year-olds had a higher ash content compared to 9-year-olds. The two sample plots differed from each other in terms of wood ash content. Heartwood samples had smaller ash content than sapwood samples. In general, the ash content of the intermediate positions was lower than those from the base and top of the stem, for both radial sections. No conclusive differences were found between samples from the base and the top of the trees, indicating that the material from the top of the trees can also be used as wood fuel. Ash content can be a considerable parameter to assess the quality of the wood of Eucalyptus spp. as a fuel.

• Mogeia, Universidade Lúrio, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Silvicultura e Maneio [Lurio University, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forestry and Management], Campus de Wanaango, EN733, Km 42, Unango, Niassa, Mozambique E-mail: smogeia@unilurio.ac.mz
• Manhiça, Centro de Investigação Florestal, [Forestry Research Center], Marracuene, EN1, Maputo província, Mozambique E-mail: albertomanhica@gmail.com
• Egas, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Faculdade de Agronomia e Engenharia Florestal, Departamento de Florestas, [Eduardo Mondlane University, Faculty of Agronomy and Forestry Engineering, Department of Forests], Av. Julius Nyerere, Maputo cidade, Mozambique E-mail: aegas8@gmail.com

Tree carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) concentrations and C:N ratio are critical for understanding the elemental compositions of forests, N use efficiency, productivity and the biogeochemical cycles. We evaluate differences in C and N allocation among biomass compartments of three N‑fixing tree species of Espinal Argentine eco-region; the scaling relationship between C and N and the C:N ratio variation among compartments and tree size. Neltuma affinis (Spreng.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis, Neltuma nigra (Griseb.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis and Vachellia caven (Molina) Seigler & Ebinger plants (n = 30 for each species) were felled, grouped by stem basal diameter-based size classes and partitioned into 3 biomass compartments: stem (st), large branches (lb) and small branches + leaves, flowers and fruits (sbl). C and N concentrations were markedly influenced by species and biomass compartments. In general, sbl compartment presented more N than the st and lb, while C concentrations in Neltuma stems were the highest. Overall, no isometric C–N scaling relationships were found in different compartments. C:N variations in compartments were positively correlated with N concentrations but did not exhibit any significant association with C concentrations. C:N ratios differed significantly among species and biomass compartments. The C:N ratio for compartments ranked in an order of st > lb > sbl. C:N ratio variability in sbl was the least. Only in N. affinis and V. caven stems C:N relationship differed among tree size. Our results provide evidence of the importance of using in situ C and N concentration per main tree species and biomass compartments, to more accurate estimates of C and N stocks.

• Sione, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina; CICyTTP-CONICET (National Research and Technological Investigation Council), Materi y España (3105) Diamante, Entre Ríos, Argentina https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2119-0363 E-mail: silvana.sione@fca.uner.edu.ar
• Ledesma, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9264-1766 E-mail: silvia.ledesma@fca.uner.edu.ar
• Aceñolaza, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina; CICyTTP-CONICET (National Research and Technological Investigation Council), Materi y España (3105) Diamante, Entre Ríos, Argentina https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5033-3466 E-mail: pablo.acenolaza@fca.uner.edu.ar
• Wilson, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1214-1041 E-mail: wilson.marcelo@inta.gob.ar

Investing in planting genetically improved silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) in Swedish plantations requires understanding how birch stands will develop over their entire rotation. Previous studies have indicated relatively low production of birch compared to Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). This could result from using unrepresentative basic data, collected from unimproved, naturally-regenerated birch (Betula spp.) growing on inventory plots often located in coniferous stands. The objective of this study was to develop a basal area development function of improved silver birch and evaluate production over a full rotation period. We used data from 52 experiments including planted silver birch of different genetic breeding levels in southern and central Sweden. The experimental plots were established on fertile forest sites and on former agricultural lands, and were managed with different numbers of thinnings and basal area removal regimes. The model best describing total stand basal area development was a dynamic equation derived from the Korf base model. The analysis of the realized gain trial for birch showed a good stability of the early calculated relative differences in basal area between tested genotypes over time. Thus, the relative difference in basal area might be with cautious used as representation of the realized genetic gain. On average forest sites in southern Sweden, improved and planted silver birch could produce between 6–10.5 m³ ha^–1 year^–1, while on fertile agriculture land the average productivity might be higher, especially with material coming from the improvement program. The performed analysis provided a first step toward predicting the effects of genetic improvement on total volume production and profitability of silver birch. However, more experiments are needed to set up the relative differences between different improved material.

• Liziniewicz, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Ekebo, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: mateusz.liziniewicz@skogforsk.se
• Barbeito, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden; Université de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRAE, UMR Silva, Nancy, France E-mail: ignacio.barbeito@slu.se
• Zvirgzdins, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 49, 23053 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: andis.zvirgzdins@slu.se
• Stener, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Ekebo, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: lg.stener@telia.com
• Niemistö, Natural Resources In-stitute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Seinäjoki, Finland E-mail: pentti.niemisto@luke.fi
• Fahlvik, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Ekebo, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: nils.fahlvik@skogforsk.se
• Johansson, Tönnersjöheden Experimental Forest, SLU, Simlångsdalen, Sweden E-mail: ulf.johansson@slu.se
• Karlsson, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Ekebo, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: curly.birch@gmail.com
• Nilsson, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 49, 23053 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: urban.nilsson@slu.se

In Germany, management restrictions for Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) due to climate change lead to increasing interest in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) as a potential substituting species. However, Douglas fir requires cost-intensive silvicultural treatments, such as periodic thinnings and, in particular, pruning. In order to improve the efficiency of such treatments, a new tending system with an adapted two-step work system was analyzed. The new system, using electric pruning shears and the backpack clearing saw Husqvarna 535FBX ‘Spacer’, was compared to the conventional three-step work system, using handsaw and chainsaw and characterized by tree selection previously conducted as an independent work step. Time and motion studies to determine productivity and costs, as well as ergonomic analysis through heart rate measurements and posture analysis were conducted. Overall, the new system was found to be more productive and to have lower costs, with 8.9 trees per scheduled system hour (4.17 € tree^–1), compared to the conventional system with 8.1 trees per scheduled system hour (4.44 € tree^–1). Ergonomic improvements with the new system could be mainly observed during the felling of competing trees, when the level of heart rate reserve was reduced by 9.3 percent points, compared to the conventional system. However, significant advantages in reducing unfavorable body postures expected for the ‘Spacer’ could not be confirmed. Since time savings within the new system were mainly attributed to the adaptation of workflow and the use of the electric shears during pruning, it should be considered to replace the ‘Spacer’ within the new system by light chainsaws for best results under the conditions investigated.

• Schönauer, Department of Forest Work Science and Engineering, University of Göttingen, Göttingen/Germany E-mail: marian.schoenauer@uni-goettingen.de
• Hoffmann, Department of Forest Work Science and Engineering, University of Göttingen, Göttingen/Germany; School of Forestry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch/New Zealand https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8077-967X E-mail: stephan.hoffmann@uni-goettingen.de
• Nolte, Forest Education Center FBZ / State Enterprise Forestry and Timber NRW, Arnsberg/Germany E-mail: Martin.Nolte@wald-und-holz.nrw.de
• Jaeger, Department of Forest Work Science and Engineering, University of Göttingen, Göttingen/Germany E-mail: dirk.jaeger@uni-goettingen.de

Physical soil properties have a marked influence on the quality of forest sites and on the preconditions for forest growth and management. In this study, water retention characteristics (WRC) and related physical soil properties in addition to vegetation coverage and tree stand data were studied at upland forest sites in Finland. Fixed and mixed models between soil and site characteristics were formed to estimate physical and hydrologic soil characteristics and the site quality with indirect co-varying variables. In the present data, the site quality index (H100) shows a high coefficient of determination in respect to the temperature sum. It is also related to soil fine fraction content, topsoil pH and water retention at field capacity. The thickness of the humus layer is predictable from the pH and cover of xeric and mesic plant species. The soil fine fraction content (clay + silt) is closely related to water retention at field capacity, the soil layer and site type, and without WRC to the temperature sum and site index and type, as well as the slope angle. The soil bulk density is related to organic matter, depth (layer) or alternatively to organic matter, slope and field estimated textural class (fine, medium, coarse). Water retention characteristics were found to be best determinable by the fine fraction content, depth and bulk density. Water content and air-filled porosity at field capacity are closely related to the fine fraction. This study provides novel models for further investigations that aim at improved prediction models for forest growth, hydrology and trafficability.

• Heiskanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Soil ecosystems, Neulaniementie 5, FI-70100 Kuopio, Finland E-mail: juha.heiskanen@luke.fi
• Hallikainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Applied statistical methods, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ville.hallikainen@luke.fi
• Uusitalo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Forest technology and logistics, Korkeakoulunkatu 7, FI-33720 Tampere, Finland E-mail: jori.uusitalo@luke.fi
• Ilvesniemi, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Biorefinery and bioproducts, Tietotie 2, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland E-mail: hannu.ilvesniemi@luke.fi

Competitive interactions in clonal forestry are not well understood and this needs to be addressed to develop better deployment strategies. Eight juvenile Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carriére) clones were grown in monoclonal and clonal mixtures in a field experiment for three years to assess the effects of genetic diversity on shoot growth, above- and below-ground biomass partitioning and crown characteristics. Shoot elongation was measured throughout the growing season, while diameter was measured twice annually in May and December. After the third year, crown silhouette area was estimated from digitised images for one ramet per plot and ramets were then destructively harvested. Deployment × clone interactions were observed for tree height and diameter with reductions observed in mixed plots. Mixed plots had significantly greater height and diameter heterogeneity and more asymmetrical competition than monoclonal plots. Results from this study demonstrate that stem growth can be significantly altered when clones are planted in multi-clonal mixtures but for most clones, deployment-type will not significantly reduce their productivity.

• Donnelly, UCD Forestry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland E-mail: liam.donnelly@ucdconnect.ie
• Grant, UCD Forestry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland E-mail: olga.grant@ucd.ie
• O’Reilly, UCD Forestry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland E-mail: conor.oreilly@ucd.ie

The paper aimed at testing the potential of refining tree rot diagnostics carried out by means of electrical impedance tomography (EIT). Examined was the use of EIT datasets with electrical resistance values and sapwood proportion determined on the basis of tomograms. Making use of datasets with resistance values in EIT rot diagnostics is not a default method, although datasets stay unaffected by a fixed colour scale and subsequent subjective evaluation unlike tomograms. Tomography measurement was carried out for 27 individuals of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) in two stands north-east of Brno, Czech Republic. Once felled down, radial cut-outs were sampled at the measurement site and used for localising rot and determining the extent of the area of decay. The results were subsequently compared with tomograms. EIT datasets containing values of electrical resistance found by measuring were statistically processed and compared with the extent of rot area identified within the cuts. Sapwood proportion values were also detected using the tomograms. The baseline assumption that sapwood proportion decreases as the rot area in the radial cut expands was confirmed. In trees with rot percentage to 35% approximately, sapwood proportion was exceeding 30% except one tree. In trees with rot percentage exceeding 35%, sapwood proportion was below 30%. On the basis of interpreted datasets, the trees can be split into three characteristic groups that correspond to the occurrence, extent and nature of the rot.

• Humplík, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Zemědělská 1665/3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: premysl.humplik@mendelu.cz
• Čermák, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Zemědělská 1665/3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: petr.cermak@mendelu.cz
• Žid, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Zemědělská 1665/3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: tomas.zid@mendelu.cz

The primary aim of this study was to clarify the chipping productivity and fuel consumption of tractor-powered and truck-mounted drum chippers when chipping pine pulpwood at a terminal. The secondary aim was to evaluate the impact of wood storage time on the chemical and physical technical specifications of wood chips by chipping pulpwood from eight different storage time groups, using Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) pulpwood stems logged between 2 and 21 months previously at the terminal with the above-mentioned chippers. Thirdly, the impact of sieve mesh size on the particle size distribution of wood chips from different age groups was compared by using an 80 mm × 80 mm sieve for a tractor-powered chipper and a 100 mm × 100 mm sieve for a truck-mounted chipper. With both chippers, the chipping productivity grew as a function of grapple load weight. The average chipping productivity of the tractor-powered chipper unit was 19 508 kg (dry mass) per effective hour (E₀h), and for the truck-mounted chipper the average productivity was 31 184 kg E₀h^–1. The tractor-powered drum chipper’s fuel consumption was 3.1 litres and for the truck-mounted chipper 3.3 litres per chipped 1000 kg (dry mass). The amount of extractives or volatiles did not demonstrate any statistically significant differences between storage time groups. The particle size distributions with both chippers were quite uniform, and the storage time of pulpwood did not have a significant effect on the particle size distribution in any chip size classes. One reason for this might be that the basic density of chipped wood was homogenous and there was no statistical difference between different storage times. The use of new sharp knives is likely to have affected chip quality, as witnessed by the absence of oversized particles and the moderate presence of fines. The use of narrower 80 mm × 80 mm sieves on Scots pine material does not seem to offer any benefit compared to 100 mm × 100 mm from the chip quality point of view.

• Laitila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha.laitila@luke.fi
• Routa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: johanna.routa@luke.fi

• Karppinen, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: heimo.karppinen@helsinki.fi
• Korhonen, Kämnerintie 7e 41, FI-00750 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mika.korhonen@gmx.com

• de Mello, Federal University of Sergipe, Brazil E-mail: aadm@nn.br
• Nutto, Federal University of Paraná, Brazil E-mail: lnutto.ufpr@gmail.com
• Weber, Federal University of Paraná E-mail: ksw@nn.br
• Sanquetta, Carlos Eduardo Sanquetta E-mail: ces@nn.br
• Monteiro de Matos, Jorge Luis Monteiro de Matos E-mail: jlmdm@nn.br
• Becker, University of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Utilization and Work Science, Germany E-mail: gb@nn.de

• Angelstam, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: per.angelstam@slu.se
• Andersson, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: ka@nn.se
• Axelsson, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: ra@nn.se
• Elbakidze, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: me@nn.se
• Jonsson, Dept of Natural Science, Engineering and Mathematics, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden E-mail: bgj@nn.se
• Roberge, Dept of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden E-mail: jmr@nn.se

• Kiser, P.O. Box 3729, Pagosa Springs, Colorado, USA E-mail: jim.kiser@parelli.com

• Nordström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd 1, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: eva-maria.nordstrom@slu.se
• Eriksson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd 1, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: loe@nn.se
• Öhman, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd 1, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ko@nn.se

• Lindstad, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: berit.lindstad@umb.no
• Solberg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: bs@nn.no

• Sumida, Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, N19W8, Sapporo 060-0819, Japan E-mail: asumida@lowtem.hokudai.ac.jp
• Nakai, International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 930 Koyukuk Drive, P.O. Box 757340, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775-7340, USA E-mail: tn@nn.jp
• Yamada, International Meteorological & Oceanographic Consultants Co., Ltd. Kawaguchi-cho 2-6528-87, Choshi, Chiba 288-0001, Japan E-mail: my@nn.jp
• Ono, Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, N19W8, Sapporo 060-0819, Japan E-mail: ko@nn.jp
• Uemura, Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University, Tokuda 250, Nayoro, Hokkaido 096-0071, Japan E-mail: su@nn.jp
• Hara, Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, N19W8, Sapporo 060-0819, Japan E-mail: th@nn.jp

• Deckmyn, Research Group Plant and Vegetation Ecology, University of Antwerpen, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerpen, Belgium E-mail: gaby.deckmyn@ua.ac.be
• Mali, Slovenian Forestry Institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: bm@nn.si
• Kraigher, Slovenian Forestry Institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: hk@nn.si
• Torelli, Slovenian Forestry Institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: nt@nn.si
• Op de Beeck, Research Group Plant and Vegetation Ecology, University of Antwerpen, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerpen, Belgium E-mail: modb@nn.be
• Ceulemans, Research Group Plant and Vegetation Ecology, University of Antwerpen, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerpen, Belgium E-mail: rc@nn.be

• Qi, Ecole Centrale Paris, Laboratory of Applied Mathematics, Grande Voie des Vignes, 92295 Chatenay-Malabry, France; Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, LIAMA/NLPR, P.O.Box 2728, Beijing, China E-mail: qiruitree@gmail.com
• Letort, Ecole Centrale Paris, Laboratory of Applied Mathematics, Grande Voie des Vignes, 92295 Chatenay-Malabry, France E-mail: vl@nn.fr
• Kang, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, LIAMA/NLPR, P.O.Box 2728, Beijing, China E-mail: mk@nn.cn
• Cournède, Ecole Centrale Paris, Laboratory of Applied Mathematics, Grande Voie des Vignes, 92295 Chatenay-Malabry, France; INRIA saclay Ile-de-France, EPI Digiplant, Parc Orsay Université, 91893 Orsay cedex, France E-mail: phc@nn.fr
• Reffye, INRIA saclay Ile-de-France, EPI Digiplant, Parc Orsay Université, 91893 Orsay cedex, France; CIRAD, UMR AMAP, Montpellier, F-34000 France E-mail: pdr@nn.fr
• Fourcaud, CIRAD, UMR AMAP, Montpellier, F-34000 France E-mail: tf@nn.fr

• Park, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: bjpark@faculty.chiba-u.jp
• Tsunetsugu, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: yt@nn.jp
• Kasetani, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: tk@nn.jp
• Morikawa, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: tm@nn.jp
• Kagawa, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: tk@nn.jp
• Miyazaki, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: ym@nn.jp

• Pukkala, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.pukkala@joensuu.fi

• Granhus, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept. of Ecology and Natural Resource Management (INA), P.O.Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: aksel.granhus@umb.no
• Fjeld, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: df@nn.se

• Nemli, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Trabzon-Türkiye E-mail: nemli@ktu.edu.tr
• Akbulut, Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul-Türkiye E-mail: ta@nn.tr
• Zekoviç, Starwood Forest Product Company, Production Manager, Bursa-Türkiye E-mail: ez@nn.tr

• Kyllönen, Department of Social and Moral Philosophy, P.O. Box 9, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: simo.kyllonen@helsinki.fi
• Colpaert, University of Joensuu, Department of Geography, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ac@nn.fi
• Heikkinen, Taida, P.O. Box 1000, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
• Jokinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kolari Research Unit, Muoniontie 21 A, FI-95900 Kolari, Finland E-mail: mj@nn.fi
• Kumpula, Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, Toivoniementie 246, FI-99910 Kaamanen, Finland E-mail: jk@nn.fi
• Marttunen, Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mk@nn.fi
• Muje, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: km@nn.fi
• Raitio, Department of Social and Policy, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kr@nn.fi

• Víquez, Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE), Apartado 7170 CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica E-mail: eviquez@catie.ac.cr
• Pérez, Ambiente Tierra S.A., Apartado 733-2250, Tres Ríos, Cartago, Costa Rica E-mail: dp@nn.cr

• Pérez, Ambiente Tierra S.A., Apartado 733-2250, Tres Ríos, Cartago, Costa Rica E-mail: diegoperez@costarricense.cr
• Kanninen, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia E-mail: mk@nn.id

• Bolkesjø, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept. of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Høyskoleveien 14, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: torjus.bolkesjo@umb.no

• Knoke, Institute of Silviculture and Forest Management, Technische Universität München, Am Hochanger 13, D-85354 Freising, Germany E-mail: knoke@wbfe.forst.tu-muenchen.de

• Kangas, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.kangas@joensuu.fi
• Markkanen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pm@nn.fi

• Kaitera, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: juha.kaitera@metla.fi

• Björklund, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Management and Products, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lars.bjorklund@sh.slu.se

Physiological studies of long-lived trees are particularly important at this time, especially in light of the need for trees to adapt to global climate change. The results of the present studies were obtained on an approximately 700-year-old Quercus robur L. – the ‘Bartek’ oak. The tree has to adapt to changing climatic conditions, starting from the transition between the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, up to the present time of rapid global climate change. Tomograph imaging showed decay of the tree trunk interior and revealed that undamaged wood forms a thin layer around the trunk perimeter. Two series of experiments were carried out to assess the physiological state of the tree. The first concerned measurements related to photosynthetic capacity: chlorophyll a fluorescence, gas exchange (CO₂ assimilation, transpiration), stomatal conductance and leaf water potential. The second series concerned xylem sap flow velocity and anatomical studies of stem wood. Photosynthetic capacity was within the limits reported for young healthy trees. The diurnal pattern of velocity of xylem sap flow was also typical for young vigorous trees and flow velocity correlated positively with solar radiation and negatively with air relative humidity. Anatomical observations of the outermost wood showed relatively narrow annuals rings with large diameter earlywood vessels. The results indicate that the veteran tree does not show signs of water stress probably due to a good balance of water flow and that leaf area of the canopy needs only the current ring of wood to feed transpiration of the canopy.

• Zajączkowska, Department of Forest Botany, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska Street, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7119-7547 E-mail: urszula_zajaczkowska@sggw.edu.pl
• Dąbrowski, Department of Environmental Development Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Warsaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2867-8839 E-mail: piotr_dabrowski@sggw.edu.pl
• Kowalczuk, Ekosystem Waldemar Kowalczuk Tomasz Kowalczuk, Otwock, Poland E-mail: ekosystem@ekosystem.waw.pl
• Tarwacki, Forest Protection Department, Forest Research Institute, Sękocin Las, Poland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5979-7788 E-mail: G.Tarwacki@ibles.waw.pl

Populations of tree species with a wide geographic range, such as silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), show genetic specialization to native environments, while maintaining high phenotypical plasticity. Accordingly, assessment of local specialization is essential for adaptive management. The aim of the study was to detect geographic patterns of local adaptation of growth and stem quality based on two open-pollinated progeny trials in Latvia testing local material. Two provenance regions differing by continentality were distinguished, which also differed in genetic control of growth traits, likely originating from the post-glacial recolonization of vegetation and subsequent natural adaptation. Heritability of the traits was estimated for each of the distinguished regions, indicating differing patterns of genetic adaptation and potential for future selection. Trees from the more continental inland showed superior growth and possessed higher heritability. The coastal provenance region showed slower growth and intermediate heritability of the respective traits. Moderate to high heritability for stem quality traits was estimated irrespectively of region. Overall, better growth and higher heritability suggests that anthropogenic selection within the best inland provenances may constitute better performing and adaptable breeding population compared to the coastal one. Still, overlapping phenotypical variation and heritability of quality traits implies improved stemwood quality for plywood regardless of the provenance region. High adaptive capacity of silver birch genotypes suggests ability to cope with climatic changes, highlighting its potential for climate-smart forestry.

• Gailis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: arnis.gailis@silava.lv
• Zeltiņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: pauls.zeltins@silava.lv
• Matisons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4042-0689 E-mail: roberts.matisons@silava.lv
• Purviņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: andis.purvins@silava.lv
• Augustovs, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: juris.augustovs@silava.lv
• Vīndedzis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: valts.vindedzis@silava.lv
• Jansons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7981-4346 E-mail: aris.jansons@silava.lv

• Tahvanainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.tahvanainen@metla.fi
• Kaartinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuun yliopisto, Finland E-mail: kk@nn.fi
• Pukkala, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuun yliopisto, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
• Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuun yliopisto, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi

• Fekedulegn, Department of Statistics, West Virginia University, Eberly College of Arts and Sciences, P.O. Box 6330, Morgantown, WV26506, USA E-mail: fdesta@stat.wvu.edu
• Mac Siurtain, University College Dublin, Ireland E-mail: mpms@nn.ie
• Colbert, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Morgantown, West Virginia E-mail: jjc@nn.us