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Articles containing the keyword 'site'

Category : Article

article id 5623, category Article
Harry T. Valentine. (1997). Height growth, site index, and carbon metabolism. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 3 article id 5623. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8524
Keywords: height growth; carbon balance; carbon allocation; carbon dioxide; Bertalanffy model; Mitscherlich model; pipe-model theory; site inxed
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A metabolic model of height growth and site index is derived from a parametrization of the annual carbon balance of a tree. The parametrization is based on pipe-model theory. Four principal variants of the height-growth model correspond to four combinations of assumptions regarding carbon allocation: (a) the apical shoot is autonomous or (b) it is not; and (A) the specific rate of elongation of a shoot equals that of a woody root or (B) it does not. The bB model is the most general as it includes the aA, bA, and aB models as special cases. If the physiological parameters are constant, then the aA model reduces to the form of the Mitscherlich model and the bA model to the form of a Bertalanffy model. Responses of height growth to year-to-year variation in atmospheric conditions are rendered through adjustments of a subset of the model's parameters, namely, the specific rate of production of carbon substrate and three specific rates of maintenance respiration. As an example, the effect of the increasing atmospheric concentration of CO2 on the time-course of tree height of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is projected over 50-year span from 1986. Site index is predicted to increase and, more importantly, the shape of the site-index curve is predicted to change.

  • Valentine, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5616, category Article
Hannu Hökkä, Virpi Alenius, Timo Penttilä. (1997). Individual-tree basal area growth models for Scots pine, pubescent birch and Norway spruce on drained peatlands in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 5616. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8517
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; site quality; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; forest drainage; mixed models; peatlands; growth models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Models for individual-tree basal area growth were constructed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), pubescent birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) growing in drained peatland stands. The data consisted of two separate sets of permanent sample plots forming a large sample of drained peatland stands in Finland. The dependent variable in all models was the 5-year basal area growth of a tree. The independent tree-level variables were tree dbh, tree basal area, and the sum of the basal area of trees larger than the target tree. Independent stand-level variables were stand basal area, the diameter of the tree of median basal area, and temperature sum. Categorical variables describing the site quality, as well as the condition and age of drainage, were used. Differences in tree growth were used as criteria in reclassifying the a priori site types into new yield classes by tree species. All models were constructed as mixed linear models with a random stand effect. The models were tested against the modelling data and against independent data sets.

  • Hökkä, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Alenius, E-mail: va@mm.unknown
  • Penttilä, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5610, category Article
Timo Tokola, Juho Heikkilä. (1997). Improving satellite image based forest inventory by using a priori site quality information. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5610. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8511
Keywords: forest inventory; stand characteristics; remote sensing; forest surveys; site factors; ancillary data; Landsat TM
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to test the benefits of a forest site quality map, when applying satellite image-based forest inventory. By combining field sample plot data from national forest inventories with satellite imagery and forest site quality data, it is possible to estimate forest stand characteristics with higher accuracy for smaller areas. The reliability of the estimates was evaluated using the data from a stand-wise survey for area sizes ranging from 0.06 ha to 300 ha. When the mean volume was estimated, a relative error of 14 per cent was obtained for areas of 50 ha; for areas of 30 ha the corresponding figure was below 20 per cent. The relative gain in interpretation accuracy, when including the forest site quality information, ranged between 1 and 6 per cent. The advantage increased according to the size of the target area. The forest site quality map had the effect of decreasing the relative error in Norway spruce (Picea abies) volume estimations, but it did not contribute to Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) volume estimation procedure.

  • Tokola, E-mail: tt@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heikkilä, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown
article id 5568, category Article
Tord Johansson. (1996). Site index curves for European aspen (Populus tremula L.) growing on forest land of different soils in Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 4 article id 5568. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8503
Keywords: Populus tremula; dominant height; European aspen; site index curves; total age; soil type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Growth data were collected from 40 European aspen (Populus tremula L.) stands growing on eight localities in Sweden. The stands ranged in latitude from 56 to 66°N. The mean age of the stands was 32 years (range, 12–63), the mean stand density 1978 stems ha-1 (range, 300–6,000), and the mean diameter at breast height (on bark) 17 cm (range, 8–34).

Site index curves were constructed for total age. Curves for H40 (dominant height at 40 years total age) were made for total Sweden. Curves fitted for H40 total age have another shape than curves presented by other Nordic studies. The curves from the present study have slower growth for young aspens than curves from Norwegian and Finnish conditions. For 50–70-year-old aspen stands, curves from the present study indicate taller heights than from Nordic studies.

Classified soil types from the stands were grouped into three groups: sandy till (17), light clay (15) and medium clay till (4). As there was only one stand growing in the fine sand group and one stand in the heavy clay till group and two stands in the silty till group, these stands were not presented with growth curves. There were no statistically significant differences in site index between the three soil type groups. Some recommendations for management of aspen stand are given. Damages caused by moose, fungi and other injuries are discussed as a problem for height yield production and a good timber quality.

  • Johansson, E-mail: tj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5572, category Article
Markku Lehtelä, Juha-Pekka Hotanen, Pentti Sepponen. (1996). Understorey vegetation in fresh and herb-rich upland forests in southwest Lapland. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 1 article id 5572. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9217
Keywords: Finland; forest soil; forest type; site classification; multivariate methods; forest vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Fresh and herb-rich upland forest sites in the north-western part of the central boreal vegetation zone in Finland were studied with respect to vegetation structure and vegetation-environment relationships (soil, stand characteristics). Two fresh heath vegetation data sets, one from the northern boreal zone and the other from the central boreal zone, were compared with the data of this study using multivariate methods.

The variation in heath forest vegetation within the climatically uniform area was mainly determined by the fertility of the soil (primarily Ca and Mg) and the stage of stand development. N, P and K content of the humus layer varied little between the vegetation classes. Fertile site types occurred, in general, on coarse-textured soils than infertile site types, may be due to the fact that the sample plots were located in various bedrock and glacial till areas, i.e. to sampling effects.

The place of the vegetational units of the study area in the Finnish forest site type system is discussed. The vegetation of the area has features in common with the northern boreal zone as well as the southern part of the central boreal vegetation zone. The results lend some support to the occurrence of a northern Myrtillus type or at least that intermediate form of fresh and herb-rich mineral soil sites commonly occur in the studied area. It is argued that the older name Dryopteris-Myrtillus type is more suitable than Geranium-Oxalis-Myrtillus type for herb-rich heath sites in the study area.

  • Lehtelä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hotanen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown
  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown
article id 5494, category Article
Jari Nieppola. (1993). Site classification in Pinus sylvestris L. forests in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 1 article id 5494. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15655
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; forest soils; Southern Finland; forest types; site classification; TWINSPAN
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

It was examined whether the present site classification method, and especially its applicability to site productivity estimation, could be improved in upland Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in Southern Finland by developing a classification key based on Two-way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN), and/or by inclusion of soil texture, stoniness and the humus layer depth more closely in the classification method. TWINSPAN clusters (TW) explained 71%, and forest site types (FST) 64% of the variation in site index (SI) (H100). When soil texture (TEXT) was added to the regression model, the explanatory power increased to 82% (SI = TW + TW * TEXT) and to 80% (SI = FST + FST * TEXT), respectively. Soil texture alone explained 69% of the variation in site index. The influence of stoniness on site index was significant (P <0.05) on sorted medium sand soils and on medium and fine sand moraine soils. The thickness of the humus layer (2–6 cm) was not significantly (P=0.1) related to site index.

It is suggested that the proposed TWINSPAN classification cannot replace the present forest site type system in Scots pine stands in Southern Finland. However, the TWINSPAN key may be used to aid the identification of forest types. The observation of dominant soil texture within each forest type is recommended.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Nieppola, E-mail: jn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5429, category Article
Hannu Mannerkoski, Veikko Möttönen. (1990). Maan vesitalous ja ilmatila metsäaurausalueilla. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 3 article id 5429. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15583
English title: Soil water conditions and air-filled porosity on ploughed reforestation areas.
Original keywords: maanmuokkaus; turvemaat; maavesi; maaveden potentiaali; huokostilavuus; pohjavedenpinta; vesipotentiaali; metsäauraus; kivennäismaat
English keywords: site preparation; Finland; peatlands; soil moisture; ground water table; water potential; soil aeration; forest ploughing; mineral soil sites
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Five ploughed research areas from Finnish Norther Karelia were selected for comparison studies of plough ridges and untouched soil. Measurements were made at a depth of 10 cm in sample plots on both mineral and paludified mineral soil and peatland parts of these areas. In summer 1987 daily soil water matric potential was measured using tensiometers, and volumetric soil moisture content and density were determined from soil samples at two dates during the summer. Water characteristics of the core samples were also determined. On paludified mineral and peat soils the water table depth from the soil surface was measured.

The results indicated that in plough ridges matric potential was lowest. Plough ridges were also seen to dry and wet faster and to a greater degree than untouched soils. In untouched soils, soil water relations and aeration were not affected by the distance to the furrow. The effect of the plough ridge was smallest on peatland, where there was a good capillary connection from plough ridge to the ground water, if the ditches were not very effective. The soil in the ridges did not dry too much to restrict seedling growth. The untouched surface soil in poorly drained peat and paludified minear soil was, at least in a rainy growing season, often and also for long times so wet that 10% minimum air space required for good seedling root growth was not available.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Mannerkoski, E-mail: hm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Möttönen, E-mail: vm@mm.unknown
article id 5416, category Article
Carl Johan Westman. (1990). Metsämaan fysikaaliset ja fysikaalis-kemialliset ominaisuudet CT-OMaT kasvupaikkasarjassa. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 1 article id 5416. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15568
English title: Soil physical and physio-chemical properties of Finnish upland forest sites.
Original keywords: kasvupaikkatyyppi; ravinteisuus; kationinvaihtokapasiteetti; podzoli
English keywords: pH; fertility; site factors; podzols; porosity; CEC
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In soil profiles from a series of uplands of different site types bulk density, density of solids and porosity of soil were clearly related to soil organic matter content and its distribution in the soil profile. Soil organic matter contents were also strongly correlated to effective cation exchange capacity (CEC) and soil acidity. Site fertility was primarily related to the fine fraction (ø<0.06 mm) content in the C horizon and related properties (i.e. CEC). In the humus layer, the content of exchangeable bases and base saturation most strongly related to site fertility.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5414, category Article
Heikki Smolander, Seppo Kellomäki, Pauline Oker-Blom. (1990). Typpipitoisuuden vaikutus männyn neulasten fotosynteesiin ja verson itsevarjostukseen. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 1 article id 5414. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15566
English title: The effect of nitrogen concentration on needle photosynthesis and within shoot shading in Scots pine.
Original keywords: mänty; ravinteisuus; fotosynteesi; kasvupaikkatekijät; verson rakenne; säteilyn sitomistehokkuus
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; photosynthesis; shading; fertility; site factors; shoot structure; light interception efficiency
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A close relationship between photosynthetic capacity and nitrogen concentration of leaves is known to exist. In conifers, nitrogen also affects the pattern of mutual shading within a shoot, which is a basic unit used in studying photosynthesis of coniferous trees. These effects of needle nitrogen concentration on photosynthetic capacity and mutual shading of needles were analysed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) shoots taken from five young stands growing on sites of different fertility. The effect of nitrogen concentration on needle photosynthesis was studied based on measurements of the photosynthetic radiation response of shoots from which two thirds of the needles were removed in order to eliminate the effect of within shading.

An increase of one percentage unit in nitrogen concentration of needles increased the photosynthetic capacity of needles by 25 mg CO2 dm-2h-1. The effect of nitrogen on within-shoot shading was quantified in terms of the silhouette area to total needle area ratio of a shoot (STAR), which determines the relative interception rate per unit of needle area on the shoot. Although nitrogen promoted needle growth, an increase in nitrogen concentration decreased the within-shoot shading. This effect resulted from a decrease in needle density on the shoot and an increased needle angle with increasing nitrogen content.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Smolander, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
  • Oker-Blom, E-mail: po@mm.unknown
article id 5407, category Article
Eero Kubin. (1990). Lumi-, routa- ja lämpöolot eri tavoin muokatussa metsämaassa Kuusamossa. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 1 article id 5407. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15559
English title: The effect of site preparation on snow, soil frost and temperature conditions at a site near Kuusamo.
Original keywords: maanmuokkaus; routa; maan lämpötila; Kuusamo
English keywords: soil frost; site preparation; northern Finland; soil temperature
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The winter 1986–87 was unusually cold; the snow cover remained thin and consequently the soil froze to a considerable depth. In spite of the severe frost, the lowest temperatures measured at the ground surface was -10.3°C and in the soil at the depth of 10 cm -5.8°C. The temperature sum of the following summer was unusually small and the soil frost melted more slowly than usual. The winter frosts did not have a decisive influence on the survival of planted seedlings.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Kubin, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5276, category Article
Kari Heliövaara, Rauno Väisänen. (1986). Parasitization in Petrova resinella (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) galls in relation to industrial air pollutants. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 3 article id 5276. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15455
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; insect damages; air pollution; Petrova resinella; gall stage; parasites
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Paratization of Petrova resinella L. in the gall stage was studied in the surrounding of Harjavalta, south-western Finland, in relation to industrial air pollution. Of the studied 283 galls, 28% produced a moth, 52% of the larvae/pupae were paratisized, and 20% were empty or contained a dead larva. The proportion of paratisized galls did not depend on the distance from emission sources of industrial air pollutants.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
article id 5209, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo. (1984). Diversity pattern of the forest vegetation in relation to some site characteristics. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 2 article id 5209. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15388
Keywords: species richness; species diversity; ground vegetation; soil; fertility; site characteristics; calcium content
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A field data set representing boreal forest-floor vegetation in Southern Finland was analysed using a simultaneous equation model. Some physical and chemical characteristics of the soil and some structural characteristics of the tree stand were treated as predictors in such a way that the tree stand factor was specified to be dependent on the soil variables. Alpha diversity, measured as the total number of species per plot, was treated as a criterion variable.

The model explains 60% of variance in the alpha diversity indicating markedly strong relationships with the site characteristics. Alpha diversity appears to increase with increases in site fertility characteristics. On the other hand, measured characteristics of the tree stand indicate no significant independent effects on the alpha diversity.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5201, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo. (1983). Distribution of vegetation on mesic forest sites in relation to some characteristics of the tree stand and soil fertility. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 4 article id 5201. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15184
Keywords: Finland; ground vegetation; indicator species; fertility; forest types; forest site classification; TWINSPAN; Oxalis-Myrtillus type; Myrtillus type; tree stand characteristics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Vegetation data collected from a random sample of mature forest stands representing mesic upland forest sites in Southern Finland were analysed and classified using two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN). The variation of some characteristics of the tree stand and soil fertility between the produced vegetation units were analysed statistically.

Both the species list and the sample list arranged by TWINSPAN reflects the overall site fertility considerably well. The results are in agreement with the main division of mesic forest sites in the Finnish forest site type classification: vegetation units which can be assigned to the Oxalis-Myrtillus site type are clearly separated from the remaining units, and the overall site fertility indicates a statistically significant difference. The within-type variation in the vegetation composition in the Oxalis-Myrtillus site type reflects the variation in site fertility, whereas the within-type variation in the Myrtillus site type is mainly caused by the tree stand factor.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5120, category Article
Pentti Sepponen. (1981). Kivennäismaan raekoon tunnuksista ja niiden käyttökelpoisuudesta eräiden maan ominaisuuksien kuvaamiseen. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5120. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15061
English title: Particle size distribution characteristics of mineral soil and their applicability for describing some soil properties.
Original keywords: metsämaa; maaperä; lajitekoostumut; raekoko; kenttäkapasiteetti; kationinvaihtokapasiteetti
English keywords: forest soil; particle size distribution; field capacity; degree of sorting; cation exchange capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The particle size distribution affects several properties of the soil, thus, the ability to define the texture type of the soil as accurately as possible in field conditions is essential. The soil particle size classification devised by Atterberg (1912) is used in Finnish forestry. The study is based on a small laboratory material. The correlation between some characteristics of the soil particle size distribution, field capacity and cation exchange capacity were determined.

The particle size characteristics such as the relative proportion of different particle sizes, average particle size (Md) and parameters depicting the degree of sorting were determined. The relative proportion of soil particles below 0.06 mm correlated best with both field capacity and cation exchange capacity. Similarly, the average particle size and the degree of sorting correlated well with the field capacity and the cation exchange capacity.

The use of sorting characteristics is not well-suited to the type of soil sample material containing a high proportion of particles of varying size as was used in this material. Such characteristics are probably more easily applicable to the fine sand and sand sediments which are predominant in Finnish forest soils. The most useful particle size distribution characteristics in soils having a great variation in particle sizes were the average particle size and the relative proportion of silt and clay. Thus, the nutrient and water status of the soil can be predicted to some extent by examining the percentage of silt and clay, average particle size and the degree of sorting.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5052, category Article
Markku Nylund, Antti Haapanen, Seppo Kellomäki, Liisa Nylund. (1979). Deterioration of forest ground vegetation and decrease of radial growth of trees on camping sites. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 4 article id 5052. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14909
Keywords: tree growth; ground vegetation; trampling; campsite; grass
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The ground cover vegetation and tree growth at several camping sites in Southern Finland were investigated. The deterioration of ground vegetation appeared to be unavoidable in these areas, and only a few grass species were tolerant to heavy trampling. Only moderate deterioration was, however, detected when the trampling level was lower than 10,00015,000 user days. On the other hand, the ground cover was completely destroyed when the trampling level exceeded 100,000 user days. A considerable decrease in radial growth appeared to be associated with destruction of the ground vegetation. The decrease was abrupt and was found to continue throughout the whole period of use. After ten years’ use the growth in the trampled areas was 35% lower than that that of the untrampled areas. A further decrease in radial growth is expected in the future. 

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish. 

  • Nylund, E-mail: mn@mm.unknown (email)
  • Haapanen, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
  • Nylund, E-mail: ln@mm.unknown
article id 5006, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki. (1978). Typpilannoituksen vaikutus havupuiden fotosynteesikapasiteettiin. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 3 article id 5006. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14860
English title: Effects of nitrogen fertilization on photosynthetic capacity of coniferous trees.
Original keywords: havupuut; lannoitus; typpilannoitus; fotosynteesikapasiteetti; neulasmassa
English keywords: biomass; photosynthetic capacity; nitrogen fertilization; coniferous trees; needle mass
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of nitrogen fertilizers on the photosynthetic capacity of conifers is assessed on the basis of literature. The review emphasizes the role of changes of needle mass as a factor affecting the result of nutrient application. In particular, the increase in needle mass results in a considerable increase in photosynthetic capacity. The effect of fertilization on the photosynthetic rate seems to be of minor importance. The effect on the photosynthetic rate is, however, poorly documented as is the case for the effect of fertilization on the respiration rate. There is evidence that proper application of nitrogen fertilizers may double the photosynthetic capacity of conifers, mainly as a result of increase in needle mass.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4886, category Article
Matti Keltikangas, Kustaa Seppälä. (1973). Metsälannoituksen edullisuuden vaihtelu. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 3 article id 4886. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14723
English title: Variations in the profitability of forest fertilization.
Original keywords: kannattavuus; kasvupaikka; puuntuotanto; metsänlannoitus; maantieteellinen sijainti; tuotonlisäys; kasvun lisäys
English keywords: fertilization; stand growth; profitability; geological location; quality of the site
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

About one million hectares of forests are fertilized annually in Finland. The goal of the present study was to find out, by means of calculations, how the profitability of forest fertilization varies with variations in the stage of development of tree crops, the quality of the site and its geographical location. Calculations concerned bot fertilization of forests in mineral soil sites and in drained peatlands. The study is a part of a larger project concerning the order of profitability of different forest improvement measures in different conditions. The problems dealt with in this study were approached from the point of view of national economy.

On the basis of two empirical materials it is shown that there is a high correlation between the stand growth percentages before and after the fertilization. Applying the results to existing yield tables the authors calculate benefit/cost ratios showing the stage of development of the stand, the quality of the site and its geographical location. According to the results, fertilization is more profitable in sites of medium fertility than on poor sites. Profitability decreases rather fast from south to north and with decreasing timber prices. 

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 4721, category Article
S. A. Wilde. (1965). Theory of relativity, soil science, and forest mensuration. Silva Fennica no. 115 article id 4721. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14276
Original keywords: metsätyypit; maaperä; metsänarviointi; kasvupaikat; kasvukyky; tuottokyky
English keywords: soil; forest mensuration; forest type; forest site; productive capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

No other manifestation of life is allied more conspicuously to the theory of relativity as the growth of forest stands which is a function of the inherent growth potential of trees, the productive capacity of environment, and time.

The height over age quotient of a forest stand is usually the most reliable indicator of the productive forces of the habitat. Stem analysis have shown that increment of a tree at different ages is closely correlated with the extension of roots into individual geological horizons of different productive capacity. Growth curves of stands of a same tree species growing on different soils can be disparate due to different conditions. The temporal variety of tree growth on different sites is of prime importance in the construction of yield tables. Investigations of natural plant communities of Finland provided one rational approach towards the construction of yield tables. By confining mensuration analyses to define floristic types, the Finnish foresters harmonized their records with Einstein’s formula for space-time matrix of material events.

  • Wilde, E-mail: sw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4688, category Article
L. Heikurainen, Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1960). Symposio metsätyypeistä ja metsäekosysteemeistä Motrealissa elokuun 24. päivänä 1959. IX Kansainvälisen kasvitieteellisen kongressin yhteydessä. Silva Fennica no. 105 article id 4688. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14129
English title: Symposium on forest types and forest ecosystems during the IX international botanical congress Montreal, August 24th 1959.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; metsätyypit; bibliografiat; ekosysteemit; kasvupaikkaluokitus; kokoukset; metsäekologia
English keywords: vegetation; ecosystems; forest types; bibliographies; site classification; Symposiums
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper is a review on the topics of Symposium on forest types and forest ecosystems, held in connection to the IX internal botanical congress in Montreal in August 1959, the chairman of which was Ilmari Hustich. The article includes 18 preparatory papers that were distributed among the participants of the symposium. The common theme of the papers was the question of finding common platform for the different schools of forest types and forest ecosystems. In addition to the papers, the article includes a summary of the proceedings and discussions of the symposium.

 

The following papers were presented in the symposium:

Aichinger, E. Können wir eine gemeinsame Platform für die verscheidenen Schulen in der Waldtypenklassifikationen finden?

Arnborg, T. Can we find a common platform for the different schools of forest type classifications?

Dansereau, P. A combined structural and floristic approach to the definition of forest ecosystems.

Daubenmire, R. Some major problems in vegetation classification

Ellenberg, H. Können wir eine gemeinsame Platform für die verscheidenen Schulen in der Waldtypenklassifikationen finden?

Hills, G.A. Comparison of forest ecosystems (vegetation and soil) in different climatic zones

Kalela, A. Classification of the vegetation, especially of the forest, with particular reference to regional problems

Krajina, V.J. Can we find a common platform for the different schools of forest type classifications?

Kühler, A.W. Mapping tropical forest vegetation

Linteau, A. Y. a-t-il. Un terrain d’entente possible entre les différentes écoles au sujet de la classification de types forestiers?

Medvecka-Kornaś, A. Some problems of forest climaxes in Poland

Ovington, J.D. The ecosystem concept as aid to forest classification

Puri, G.S. The concept of climax in forest botany as applied in India

Rowe, J.S. Can we find a common platform for the different schools of forest type classifications?

Scamoni, A. Können wir eine gemeinsame Grundlage für die verscheidenen Schulen in der Waldtypenklassifikationen finden?

Sukachev, V.N. The correlation between the concept ’forest ecosystem’ and ’forest biogeocoenise’ and their importance for the classification of forests

Webb, L.J. A new attempt to classify Australian rain forest

  • Heikurainen, E-mail:
  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4687, category Article
V. Sukatsev. (1960). Metsätyyppien tutkimisen opas. Suomentanut Erkki Laitakari. Silva Fennica no. 99 article id 4687. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14125
English title: A guide to the study of forest types.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; metsätyypit; oppaat; eliöyhteisöt
English keywords: community; forest site type; forest type; site factors
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Professor V. Sukachev, a Soviet developer of the doctrine of forest types, published a guide to the study of forest types in 1931. He states in the introduction of the guide that his aim is to facilitate the work of beginners in determining forest types and to instruct them in developing methods for their description and classification.
This Finnish edition of the guide includes new picture material and has an extensive supplementary preface, written by the author, that presents his view on forest types. The guide describes the concept of forest types, methods of describing forest types, guidelines to material collected in the forests and principles of classification of the different forest types.

  • Sukatsev, E-mail: vs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4678, category Article
W. Wittich. (1958). Kasvupaikkaopin kehitys ja merkitys metsänhoidolle Saksassa. (Helsingin yliopistossa 26.4.1958 pidetty esitelmä, suomentanut Peitsa Mikola). Silva Fennica no. 96 article id 4678. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9124
English title: Development and significance of the knowledge of site factors and site types in forestry in Germany.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; maaperä; kasvupaikka; kasvupaikkaoppi; Saksa
English keywords: forest management; site type; soil; forest type; site factors; soil science; Germany
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a summary of a presentation by W. Wittich, held in the University of Helsinki in 26.4.1958.
The significance of fertility of the site in tree growh was known already for over 100 years ago in Germany, but after the First World War the view was abandoned in forestry. According to the Dauerwald system of managing forests that was introduced at the time, the type of site was considered relatively insignificant in forest management. Therefore, similar practices were used in all kinds of sites. The opposition against the use of this method resulted in new research on the site factors.
Knowledge of the relation of the site types and vegetation makes it possible to improve productivity: in regional planning the production that is considered to be necessary is assigned to the sites that have best conditions for it. For instance, in Niedersachsen county about 6% of the forest lands are reserved for cultivation of oak.
Another line of soil science studies the root causes behind the hands-on experiences of forest management. The aim is to abandon rigid approaches in forestry. Studying the effects of forest management practices on soil has been targeted, for instance, on effects of clear cutting on decomposition and vegetation, how the soil affects choice of tree species, and decomposition of litter from different tree species. Knowledge of soil and the trees’s demand of nutrients helps to mend disturbancies, such as nutrient deficiensies. Consequently, fertilization has become a new tool to improve productivity in forestry.
The article includes a German summary.

  • Wittich, E-mail: ww@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4577, category Article
Metsäverotuksen uudistamiskomitea. (1942). Metsäverotuksen uudistamissuunnitelma. Silva Fennica no. 57 article id 4577. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9081
English title: Reform of forest taxation.
Original keywords: komiteanmietinnöt; lainsäädäntö; metsäverotus; tuottoarvo; verotus; pinta-alaverotus
English keywords: forest taxation; legislation; committee; yield in terms of value; taxation; site-productivity forest taxation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A committee was appointed in 1940 to prepare a proposal for reform of forest taxation. The taxation based on net income of forestry was considered to have limitations, and the actual net income had been observed to be markedly higher than the income that was used in taxation.

The report describes in detail the principles and shortcomings of taxation used since 1922. These include inaccuracies in the forest areas of a woodland estate, and weaknesses in classification of forest land and demand zones. The committee suggests several improvements in calculating the taxable income, which in the new calculations is based on yield on terms of value.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Metsäverotuksen uudistamiskomitea, E-mail:
article id 4576, category Article
Bo-Eric Blumenthal. (1942). Distribution and properties of aspen in Finland. Silva Fennica no. 56 article id 4576. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9080
Keywords: Populus tremula; height growth; distribution; diameter growth; decay; forest site type; aspen
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Aspen (Populus tremula L.) is a common tree in Finland, and has been used, for instance, in matchstick industry. However, there has been little studies on its distribution and properties. In this study, 142 sample trees in different forest site types in Valtimo and Onkamo in Eastern Finland were measured in detail in 1935.

According to the results, during the first 10 years aspens height growth is fastest of the Finnish tree species surpassing, for instance, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula sp.) . The diameter growth is similar to Scots pine up to the age of 50 years, after which the growth of aspen exceeds Scots pine. Branchless portion of the stem compared to the height of the tree increases until it reaches about 50% of the height of the tree. In poorer sites aspen is prone to decay.

Aspen regenerates easily both by root shoots and seeds. If root shoots are left to grow, the mother tree should be free of decay. In general, seedlings are of better quality. Good quality aspen stands require thinning and a rich forest type. If an old aspen stand has decay, the trees should be ring-barked and the site regenerated with a new tree species.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Blumenthal, E-mail: bb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4552, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1939). Puiden juuristot ja metsänhoito. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4552. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13959
English title: Root systems of trees and forest management.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; juuristo; kasvupaikkatyypit
English keywords: forest management; forest education; forest site type; professional development courses; root system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes growth and form of root systems of different tree species in different sites and how growth of roots affect forest management.

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4543, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1938). Metsän uudistamisesta laihoilla kangasmailla. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4543. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13952
English title: Forest regeneration on poor forest sites.
Original keywords: luontainen uudistuminen; kuiva kangas; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kulotus; kuivahko kangas; kasvupaikka; metsänuudistuminen; uudistushakkuu
English keywords: natural regeneration; forest regeneration; forest education; professional development courses; broadcast burning; dry upland forest site; dryish upland forest site; regeneration felling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes forest regeneration on poor forest sites.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4524, category Article
Risto Sarvas. (1937). Havaintoja kasvillisuuden kehityksestä Pohjois-Suomen kuloalueilla. Silva Fennica no. 44 article id 4524. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9069
English title: Observations on development of vegetation in burned areas in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; kasvillisuus; kuloala; metsäpalo; metsätyyppi; sukkessio
English keywords: succession; vegetation; northern Finland; forest fire; forest site type; dry upland forest site
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to follow development of vegetation in dry upland forest sites after forest fire. The sample sites were situated in the counties of Muonio, Kolari, Sodankylä, Pelkosenniemi, Savukoski, Kemijärvi and Salla, in the northernmost Finland.
The growth of plant communities can arise either from the vegetation and seeds that survived the fire, or from seeds that spread from the surrounding areas. The development of vegetation in the burned areas was unexpectedly independent of the surrounding areas, which indicates that role of the seeds from the outside of the burned ares is small. The occurence of different species of lichens, moss, scale moss and vascular plants in the burned areas are described in detail. The development of vegetation was strongly dependent on the forest site type. The thin humus layer of Cladina site type burns usually evenly, and also the vegetation develops more evenly than in the more fresh site types. Vegetation typical for burned areas was fully developed within 10-15 years, and after 25 years it began to resemble the vegetation of Cladina site type forests. The ground vegetation of Calluna type burned area was more patchy. It developed quicker than in Cladina type. Absense of lichens made it seem more fertile than is usual for Calluna type. The humus layer of Empetrum-Myrtillus site type burned unevenly, and if the area was lightly burned, the vegetation recovered quickly. The vegetation was often patchy.
The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Sarvas, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4523, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1937). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran 25-vuotisjuhla 18.4.1934. Silva Fennica no. 43 article id 4523. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9068
English title: 25th anniversary of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences on April 18th, 1934.
Original keywords: esitelmät; metsätiede; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science; speeches
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The article includes description of the 25th anniversary festivities of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences, held on April 18th, 1934. The volume contains the speeches and addresses held in the jubilee, dealing with Finnish forestry, and its development.
  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: sms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4477, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1935). Metsänhoitolaitoksen 75-vuotisjuhla 19. IV. 1934. Silva Fennica no. 36 article id 4477. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9063
English title: 75 years’ jubilee of the Finnish Forest Service on April 19th, 1934.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsätalous; historia; esitelmät; juhlat; valtion laitokset
English keywords: Forest Service; state forests; anniversary
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a description of the 75th anniversary of Finnish Forest Service (now Metsähallitus, Forest Service), held on April 19th 1934. The greetings of the quests, presented in the Commemoration festival and Banquet, are included in the article.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: fsfs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4475, category Article
Olavi Cajander. (1934). Viljavan maa-alan jakautumisesta sekä lehtokasvillisuudesta ja -kasvistosta keskisen Längelmäveden seudulla. Silva Fennica no. 34 article id 4475. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9047
English title: Distribution of fertile lands and vegetation indicative for herb-rich forest sites in Längelmävesi area in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; Häme; lehdot; Satakunta; viljavuus; viljava maa
English keywords: fertility; plant geography; herb-rich forest sites; vegetation analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Typical for the area of Längälmävesi, in Satakunta in Southern Finland, are densely populated fertile lowland areas near the waterways and poorer sparcely populated upland areas. The changes in fertility of the land influence the vegetation, and has directed where the population has settled. A vegetation survey was made using specific plant species as indication to fertility. A detailed description of the species composition and distribution of the plant species indicative for fertile land is presented in the article.

Analyzing the fertility only based on the plant species indicative for rich soils underestimates the proportion of fertile lands. Farmlands, on the other hand, have been cleared also on less fertile soils, which would give an overestimate of the fertile lands. A map of fertile lands was drawn based on both vegetation and location of the fields. The changes in fertility influenced also bird species observed in the area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Cajander, E-mail: oc@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4473, category Article
Alfred Brandt. (1933). Hiisjärven luonnonpuiston kasvillisuudesta. Silva Fennica no. 32 article id 4473. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9045
English title: Vegetation in the Hiisjärvi protected area in Eastern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; kasviyhdyskunnat; luonnonpuistot; luonnonsuojelualueet; metsätyypit; suokasvillisuus; vesikasvillisuus
English keywords: forest site type; nature reserve; protection of nature; nature park; peatland type; aquatic flora
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Metsähallitus (Forest Service) decided to protect two areas around Hiisijärvi lake in Eastern Finland already in 1916. Later, a natural park was suggested to be established in the area. A survey of the vegetation in the area was composed in 1931-1932. The total land area of the protected area was 3.5 km3. A vegetation map was drawn based on a nature inventory. A detailed description of the forest site types, peatland types, aquatic flora and the vegetation of the area are included in the article. The calcareous soil promotes rich vegetation. Typical for the area are also rich fens. The area can be divided to a eutrophic and a oligotrophic part.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Brandt, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4467, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1932). Lauri Ilvessalon muisto. Silva Fennica no. 26 article id 4467. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9039
English title: In memoriam of Dr. Lauri Ilvessalo.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; esitelmät; henkilöhistoria; julkaisut; Lauri Ilvessalo; muistokirjat
English keywords: obituary; Lauri Ilvessalo
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is an obituary of Dr. Lauri Ilvessalo, who died in 1928. He worked as a professor of silviculture in 1918-24, and published numerous scientific articles on silviculture. The article includes his presentations on the state of forestry in Finland, and on the establishment of Forest Service in Finland and the public attitude towards the organization.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: fs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4456, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1930). Characters and meaning of forest types. Silva Fennica no. 15 article id 4456. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8990
Keywords: classification; presentation; plant community; vegetation unit; forest types; forest site classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article contains three presentations given about forest type classification at the University of Tarto in Estonia. The article has an introduction, a part about the meaning of the natural classification of forest sites and up to now conducted studies on site classification. The second part presents the characteristics of plant communities and the forest types, and practical and theoretical meaning of forest types.

Classifying the forest sites is important in practical forestry, because the forest growth and forest valuation are dependent on the productivity of the soil. The classification of the sites for forest management purposes needs to result in classes that are easily distinguished in the forest. This then leads to forest management that best fits to a certain forest site. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4451, category Article
Pekka Urho Sakari Tikka. (1928). Havaintoja kuusen esiintymisestä ja kehityksestä Pohjois-Suomen kuivissa kangasmetsissä. Silva Fennica no. 10 article id 4451. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8399
English title: Observations on Norway spruce growth and development in dry mineral soil sites in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; luontainen uudistuminen; kuiva kangas; kuusi; Picea abies; taimi
English keywords: Norway spruce; natural regeneration; seedling; northern Finland; dry upland site
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) is rarely the dominant species on dry mineral soil sites in Northern Finland. These sites are, in general, too poor and dry for spruce, and suit better for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). According to the study, the natural regeneration of spruce is in Northern Finland poor. In the sample plots, cones could be found in 35% of spruce trees in the stands in natural state and 46% in the harvested stands. Compared to the spruce areas in Northern Finland, or fresh mineral soil sites in Southern Finland, cone and seed production of Norway spruce was in dry mineral soil sites very low due to scarcity of seed trees and their low cone number. There were few spruce seedlings in the sample plots, but according to the observations, spruce is able to regenerate on lichen and heath covered sites. The seedling growth was, however, poor on dry sites. Spruce seedlings were often found near fallen trees and stumps. The growing trees prevent growth of seedlings of all species. Norway spruce seems, however, to be able to spread also to the poor sites. The success depends on the vegetation and dryness of the site. For instance, spruce can spread to dry mineral soil sites from seed trees of nearby peatlands.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Tikka, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4446, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1927). Methods for preparing yield tables. Silva Fennica no. 5 article id 4446. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8394
Keywords: growth and yield table; forest site class; quality class; fertility; growth series
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on methods used in Central Europe and in Finland to construct growth and yield tables, and on their defects and advantages. One of the main defects of growth and yield tables prepared previously in Central Europe is that the site quality classes for different tree species have been formed independently and using different principles. Thus, the yields of different tree species on a similar site can’t be compared. In addition, the quality classes of this kind of growth and yield tables and growth series are artificial.

The Society of Forestry in Finland (now Finnish Society of Forest Sciences) started to prepare new yield tables for the most important tree species in Finland in 1916. The new yield tables aimed to improve the yield tables made in Central Europe in two aspects. Firstly, the quality of the site of each sample plot was assessed on the spot and independently from the standing crop. Thus the sample plots of each site class in setting up the growth series can be treated as independent groups. Consequently, the quality classes are be the same for all tree species. Secondly, mathematical-statistical methods were used to determine which of the stands that belong to the same quality class belong also to the same growth series.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4445, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1927). The scientific foundation of forestry as exemplified by Forest Research Work in Suomi. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4445. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8393
Keywords: inventory; Finland; North America; forest mensuration; forest research; forest site type; line plot survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a lecture given by A.K. Cajander in the International Congress of Plant Science. The lecture describes results of Finnish forest research that might be regarded significant also for North America. Because of similarities in nature and forest management, forest research may use similar methods in both areas.

For instance, line plot survey in the form used in Finland could well be applied in North America. In Finland, lines were drawn at 26 kilometer intervals. Visual estimates about, for instance, species, tree growth and productivity class, were made along the lines and sample plots were taken every other kilometer. To gain full advantage of the method, a productivity classification and yield tables are needed. When these are known, it is possible to find out how to increase the productivity of forests with suitable tree species and proper forest management. This kind of inventory of forest resources and the state of forests provides reliable information for forest policy. Another important issue for forest research is forest management, which requires understanding on their biology. At the same time, research must provide methods for practical forestry.

A summary in Finnish is included in the PDF.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4441, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1927). Preparation of growth and yield tables. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4441. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8389
Keywords: stand growth; forest site type; growth and yield tables; site quality class; stem frequency distribution series
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

One of the difficulties in constructing growth and yield tables has been to determine which of the sample plots growing the same tree species and belonging to the same forest site type, with reference to the quality of stands, have to be included in the same growth series.

New growth and yield tables for the most important tree species were constructed in Finland in 1916–1919, using new principles that aim at avoiding some of the common weaknesses. There were two main differences to the earlier work. First, the site quality class (forest site type) was determined for each sample plot when the sample plot was measured, independently of the stand occupying the site. In this way it was possible to treat the sample plots of each site as an independent group from the beginning, and so that the quality classes were the same for all the tree species. Second, mathematic-statistical methods were used to deduct the so-called stem frequency distribution series, when studying which of the sample plots of the same quality class belong to the same growth series. They represent the average number of stems of the different diameter classes. A more detailed description of the method used to create the growth and yield tables is published in Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 15.

In the PDF is included a summary in Finnish.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4439, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1927). Some aspects of forest research work. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4439. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8387
Keywords: forest management; forest mensuration; forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article highlights the need to classify the forest sites in objective and exact classes. This is important both from a practical and a scientific point of view as well as from a silvicultural point of view, for the forest management varíes for each tree species, and according to the site, even if the species remains the same. It is evident that the same classification of sites according to quality ought to be applicable to silviculture, forest mensuration and statistics. In Finland, a forest site type rating has been created for this purpose.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Article

article id 7147, category Article
S. A. Wilde, J. G. Iyer. (1963). Effect of natural subirrigation on the uptake of nutrients by forest plantations. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 76 no. 7 article id 7147. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7147
Keywords: Pinus radiata; growth; fertility; forest site; ground water table; United States
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Result of a survey of soils supporting forest plantations in Wisconsin in the United States indicated a close correlation between the levels of fertility of non-phreatic, coarse-textured soils and the growth of red pine (Pinus resinosa Roezl) stands aged from 15 to 32. This relationship, however was not observed in plantations established on deep-gley soils, underlain at a depth of 3–9 fl by ground water.

The survey encountered 20 red pine plantations on soils underlain by a deep ground water table accessible to tree roots thorough their contact with gley horizon or with extended capillary fringe. The average growth of the stands was 80 cubic feet/acre (5.6 m3/ha) at the age of 22 years. Thus, mensuration analysis suggested that the soils are the choice grounds for forestry enterprise. However, the analysis of soil samples showed that in many instances the soils are extremely low in mineral colloids, organic matter and nutrients. Many of the sites would be regarded as critically deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

The following hypothesis are suggested to explain this discrepancy:

a) The moisture content of coarse-textured non-phreatic soils remain near the wilting point during a large apart of the growing season with subsequent reduction of transpiration and uptake of nutrients. If a capillary fringe provides a supply of water for the root system, trees may derive an adequate supply of salts and exchangeable ions from comparatively infertile substrata.

b) The suitably located ground water provides adequate aeration of the surface soil layers which is not impeded by capillary fringe, increasing activity of mycorrhiza, and a mycotrophic uptake of nutrients from unweathered minerals.

c) The above effects of natural subirrigation should change the concept of soil fertility based on mere chemical analysis. The time during which the roots are engaged in active absorption appears to be of equal importance as the concentration of nutrients in available form.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Wilde, E-mail: sw@mm.unknown (email)
  • Iyer, E-mail: ji@mm.unknown
article id 7396, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1949). Forest types and their significance. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 56 no. 5 article id 7396. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7396
Keywords: forestry; forest types; A.K. Cajander; forest type theory; site classes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This special volume of Acta Forestalia Fennica is published in memory of professor A.K. Cajander (1879-1943), who was one of the founders of the Finnish Society of Forest Science. It contains a short biography, a complete list of his literary works and one of the papers on forest types he has written.

This article contains professor A.K. Cajander’s paper on the theory of forest types in English. The article can be found in Finnish in separate PDF (article id 7695).

The idea of forest types was developed by professor Cajander first in 1904-1909, when he was working as a student in the Evo Forestry Institute. The first publication in 1909 was followed by intensive research and the findings of the investigations were published in 1929 in Acta Forestalia Fennica 29 (Metsätyyppiteoria, The theory of forest types).

When classifying forest growing sites, the purpose is to combine those having the same or approximately same yield capacity, and to separate into different classes those whose yield capacity is widely different. The article states that site quality classification is a necessity in organized forest management as it gives a basis for all forest calculations concerning with yield and profit. The principles of site classification and its meaning in forest management is discussed.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7395, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1949). Metsätyypit ja niiden merkitys. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 56 no. 4 article id 7395. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7395
English title: Forest types and their significance.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsätyypit; kasvupaikka; metsätyyppiteoria; A.K. Cajander
English keywords: forestry; forest types; site class; forest type theory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This special volume of Acta Forestalia Fennica is published in memory of professor A.K. Cajander (1879-1943), who was one of the founders of the Finnish Society of Forest Science. It contains a short biography, a complete list of his literary works and one of the papers on forest types he has written.

This PDF includes his article on forest types in Finnish. The translation of the text in English can be found in a separate PDF (article id 7396).

The idea of forest types was developed by professor Cajander first in 1904-1909, when he was working as a student in the Evo Forestry Institute. The first publication in 1909 was followed by intensive research and the findings of the investigations were published in 1929 in Acta Forestalia Fennica 29 (Metsätyyppiteoria, The theory of forest types).

When classifying forest growing sites, the purpose is to combine those having the same or approximately same yield capacity, and to separate into different classes those whose yield capacity is widely different. The article states that site quality classification is a necessity in organized forest management as it gives a basis for all forest calculations concerning with yield and profit. The principles of site classification and its meaning in forest management is discussed.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7390, category Article
Onni Pohjakallio, Olli Vaartaja. (1948). Occurrence and spore production of Coleosporium melanpyri Kleb. (pine needle rust) on different sites and host plants. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 55 no. 2 article id 7390. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7390
Keywords: site; occurrence; Coleosporium melanpyri Kleb; host; spore production; Coleosporium spp.
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Department of plant pathology of University of Helsinki conducted studies in the surrounding forests of Viikki test farm and on the Hyytiälä forest training station to find about occurrence and spore production of pine needle rust.

The damages have been minor. Most often the infection did not cause yellowing of the needles, only individual needles might have dried up. There were no dead young trees.

The spore production was strongest at the more fertile sites, with abundant occurrence of cow-wheat (Melanpyrum spp.). The infection caused more harm on the cow-wheat than on the pines. In many cases the foliage died prematurely. Melanpyrum spp. were more strongly infected on sites with more light. However, there was no difference found with the fertility of the site.

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

  • Pohjakallio, E-mail: op@mm.unknown (email)
  • Vaartaja, E-mail: ov@mm.unknown
article id 7347, category Article
Aarno Kalela. (1939). On meadows and meadow alike vegetation communities on the Rybachy Peninsula in Petsamo, Lapland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 7347. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7347
Keywords: peatland; plant community; vegetation unit; site classification; meadow
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents the characteristics of different vegetation areas (meadows and peatlands) by their distinctive vegetation. The study area is by the Barents Sea and is the northernmost part of continental European Russia. Different sites are classified by plant communities and/or vegetation units.

The article continues on the second PDF-file. 

  • Kalela, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7344, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1939). Maan arvo metsätalouden tuloksenlaskennassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 47 no. 4 article id 7344. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7344
English title: Value of forest land in the financial accounting of forestry.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; metsämaan arvo; metsätalouden tuloslaskenta
English keywords: forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The valuation of forest land for financial accounting purposes is usually performed only when using methods that are based on wood resources. In the yield based methods, the book value of forest land and wood resources form one totality. In the first case, forest land in a separate land account usually has same value in the beginning and end of the accounting year. For instance, the costs of forest improvement are considered capital costs. Forest land can be valued either by multiplying the average hectare price of land with the hectares, or using separate unit prices for the different forest site types. Different ways to value forest land are presented, comparing the forest site type classification developed in Finland and the traditional method based on average height of the trees used in Central Europe. The study shows that values of forest land has relative nature.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7316, category Article
Martti Hertz. (1935). Kuusen juuriston ensi kehityksestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 7316. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7316
English title: The early development of Norway spruce root system.
Original keywords: kuusi; Picea abies; sirkkataimi; pääjuuri; kasvualusta
English keywords: seedlings; forest site; main root
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The development roots of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) seedlings was studied in sample seedlings grown in different kinds of sites. In the early stage, the seedling roots grow primarily length. The main root is usually long. If the growth of the root is hindered, the tip of the root dies, and the root system growing from the original root collar remains relatively small; in these cases, the secondary root system becomes more important. In unfavourable conditions the root branches can early on replace the main root. The main root of a germling seems to be less able to seek for free growing space than the main and side roots of older seedlings. When the growth of the root is blocked by some kind of obstacle, it does not often hinder the growth of the seedling. The type of soil influences strongly how the root system grows. In good soil and in humus the root system is regular and richly branched, while in clay and coarse sand the root system was small. Spahgnum moss was good substrate for seedlings, Dicranum undulatum moss little less good, while the seedlings grew poorly on Pleurozium Schreberi.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Hertz, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7315, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1934). Koivun juuristo. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 41 no. 2 article id 7315. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7315
English title: The root system of birch (Betula pubescens and B. verrucosa).
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; sekametsä; juuristo; koivu; Betula sp
English keywords: forest site type; mixed stand
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

About 40% forest in Finland are mixed stands that have birch (Betula pubescens and B. verrucosa) as one of the species. The aim of this research was to study the structure of root system of birch and compare it to the other main tree species in Finland.

The root systems were dug out and measured in 28 sample plots in Southern and Central Finland, representing different forest site types. Birch roots correspond 30‒100% of the volume of the stem, the largest root systems being in the sandy soils or peatlands. Also the longest lateral roots can be found at these sites. The size variation of root system of birch is larger than in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), and the vertical root system is in general smaller in birch. Birch seems to be better than pine able to adapt its root system to the existing conditions. The smallest root systems were found in the good forest site types, but the roots grow in the good sites denser than in the poor sites. The lateral roots of the main tree species in Finland, birch, Scots pine and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) grow in different depths, which decreases the competition between the species. This finding gives support to cultivation of mixed stands.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7256, category Article
V. Pöntynen. (1929). Tutkimuksia kuusen esiintymisestä alikasvoksina Raja-Karjalan valtionmailla. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 35 no. 1 article id 7256. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7256
English title: Studies on Norway spruce undergrowth in state forests in Karelia.
Original keywords: kuusi; Picea abies; valtion metsät; metsätyyppi; alikasvos; Karjala
English keywords: natural regeneration; forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The abundance of Norway spruce (Picae abies (L.) H. Karst.) undergrowth is common for the state forests in Karelia near the Russian border, in Finland. In the survey, the occurrence of the undergrowth was studied. The article includes a review on the ownership of the forest, forest soils in the area, and the state of forests in the area. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is the dominative species in 67%, Norway spruce in 27% and Betula sp. 6% of the state forests. Only 2% of the forests are 1‒20 years of age. Stands in the age group of 61‒80 years are the most common (25%). Norway spruce undergrowth is most abundant in the municipality of Salmi. The forests are typically moist forest site types or grass-herb site types. If the stands are allowed to develop naturally, even the Vaccinium sites become Norway spruce dominated. Spruce undergrowth is formed seldom under a spruce forest unless the stand is thin or has openings. Because Norway spruce is often rare in the mineral soil sites, the undergrowth is often regenerated from seeds that spread from spruce swamps. Earlier practiced shifting cultivation and its frequent fires prevented regeneration of spruce undergrowth. Similarly, the common felling method used, clear felling in strips, does not promote spruce undergrowth. Consequently, their occurrence is likely to decrease in the future.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Pöntynen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7241, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1929). On the possibility to classify forest sites by means of soil studies. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 28 article id 7241. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7241
Keywords: forest classification; soil properties; forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

After critically reviewing earlier studies on soil properties and their influence on forest growth and yield, it seems that defining the forest yield could be possible by means of soil properties. To be able to do so, the site needs to be defined and delineated in some other way. It is also necessary to decide the right soil properties to study for the purpose.

For the classification of forest sites the results of soil analyses need to be compared with growth and yield data from the site. To further the practice of classification of forest sites by means of soil studies, four aspects need to be taken into account:

1)  the site needs to be delineated beforehand according its vegetation, preferable with Cajander’s forest type classification

2) the experiments about soil needs to be done for as many properties as possible

3) the studied sites need to be as representative as possible in their class

4) there are as many samples for one site as possible studied

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7225, category Article
A. E. Osmaston. (1929). On the forest types in India. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 12 article id 7225. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7225
Keywords: tree species; indicator species; forest site type; indicator plants; India
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest site type classification based on the vegetation has not been developed in India. The classifications made by forest officers have been based on the upper storeys of trees. Shrubs have been used to class such sites where grasses are the dominant species. However, some observers in India have used grass and bamboo species to identify sites suitable on unsuitable for certain valuable tree species. In Burma, some bamboo species have been noticed to be good indicators for sites suitable or unsuitable for teak (Tectona grandis L. f.). Studies in the western sub-Himalayan area suggest that certain grasses could be used as indicators for sites suitable for sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.). Grasses have also been identified as indicators for certain kinds of forests and soils in the area between Ganges and the Jumna.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Osmaston, E-mail: ao@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7223, category Article
L. Wappes. (1929). Trend of forest management of the day. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 10 article id 7223. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7223
Keywords: forest site classification; letter
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a congratulatory letter to professor Cajander. The author describes the work of Cajander about forest site classification and its importance to the development of forest sciences not only in Finland but worldwide.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Wappes, E-mail: lw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7218, category Article
John W. Harshberger. (1929). The forests of the Pacific coasts of British Columbia and Southeastern Alaska. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 5 article id 7218. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7218
Keywords: forest site types; dominant species; coniferous tree species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The vegetation in the Pacific coasts of British Columbia and Southeastern Alaska resemble the vegetation in the northern Fennoscandia. The national forests have been divided in two parts: Tongass and Chugach national forests. Both of the forests are fairly uniform in their vegetation. The forests have few coniferous tree species as the dominant species from south to north, Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carrière) and western hemloch (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.). It is difficult to distinguish forest site types, but it is probable that the forest lands in Alaska and British Columbia could be delimited to similar forest site types as professor Cajander established in Finland.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Harshberger, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7215, category Article
Mark L. Anderson. (1929). Forest types in Scotland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 7215. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7215
Keywords: afforestation; silviculture; forest site types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The primeval forests of Scotland were deforested in the Lowlands by the end of 1500th century, and in the end of the 1800th century also the best forests of the more inaccessible Highlands were exploited. The 1800th century witnessed an outburst of afforestation among the private land owners. With help of nursery work and use of exotic species, the work was successful. Silviculture of Scotland would benefit of a reliable method of site classification. The complexity of the geology and topography, and the lack of mature natural stands complicate the establish a forest type classification similar to the one Prof. Cajander has evolved in Finland. The aim is to establish forest site types which include similar types as in Finland, with possibly additional types in the grass-herb series.

Jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Anderson, E-mail: ma@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7210, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1927). Männyn juuristo: morfologinen tutkimus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 7210. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7210
English title: Morphological study of Scots pine root system.
Original keywords: mänty; Pinus sylvestris; kasvupaikka; paalujuuri
English keywords: forest site type; taproot; vertical root system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The root systems of 192 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sample trees were dug out and measured in Säyneinen, Rautavaara and Pielijsäjvi in the Central Finland and Orivesi, Teisko and Hämeenkyrö in the Southern Finland. The volume of root system of Scots pine was always smaller than the stem, varying from 15% to 94% of the stem volume. The ratio is smaller in dense stands. The type of soil of the site affects how the central root system (tap root and the inner vertical roots) develop. This reflect the adaptability of the root system to different growth conditions. The root system may, for instance, substitute the tap root with stronger inner roots.

PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7193, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1926). The theory of forest types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 29 no. 3 article id 7193. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7193
Keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; quality class; forest type; forest vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest sites have typically been classified by two principles, either as stand quality classes or as locality (site) classes. This article describes the principles of Finnish forest site types (forest quality classes) which are based on classification of localities according to their forest plant associations. All the stands that belong to the same forest site type are characterized by a distinct, more or less identical plant species composition. The forest site types are independent of the tree species. The forest site types in a larger area are relatively numerous, but can be grouped according to their normal form. The Finnish forests are separated to dry moss forest class, the moist moss-forest forest class and grass-herb forest class. The different forest site types belonging to the classes are described in detail. Growth of the trees is different for the different forest site types, but varies little within a same site type. The forest site types suit therefore well for the purposes of forest mensuration and for yield tables. The forest site types reflect also the properties of the soil.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7192, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1925). Metsätyyppiteoria. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 7192. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7192
English title: The theory of forest types.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; kasvupaikka; pintakasvillisuus; hyvyysluokka; boniteetti
English keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; quality class; forest type; forest vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest sites have typically been classified by two principles, either as stand quality classes or as locality (site) classes. This article describes the principles of Finnish forest site types (forest quality classes) which are based on classification of localities according to their forest plant associations. All the stands that belong to the same forest site type are characterized by a distinct, more or less identical plant species composition. The forest site types are independent of the tree species. The forest site types in a larger area are relatively numerous, but can be grouped according to their normal form. The Finnish forests are separated to dry moss forest class, the moist moss-forest forest class and grass-herb forest class. The different forest site types belonging to the classes are described in detail. Growth of the trees is different for the different forest site types, but varies little within a same site type. The forest site types suit therefore well for the purposes of forest mensuration and for yield tables. The forest site types reflect also the properties of the soil.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7085, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1923). Paper on the correlation between the characteristics of the soil and the growth of forest stand. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 10 article id 7085. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7085
Keywords: site quality; nitrogen; soil; correlation; lime; forest stand; calcium
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is based on the results of the soil studies by Valmari (1921) and the growth inventories of respective areas. The aim is to show the connection of soil fertility (nutrient content) and forest growth with means of correlation calculations. The examined nutrients were nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus, also the electrolyte content was studied.

The results show that with increase of nitrogen content of the soil the growth of pine stand increases as well. The correlation is clearly identified. The number of birch and spruce stands is too small for systematic review. For calcium there is a similar kind of relation. With phosphorus content or amount of electrolytes the correlation with doesn’t exist. Also the loss on ignition test was conducted. The relation found is somewhat weak.
  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7068, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1921). Tilastoa Pohjois-Suomen metsä- ja suotyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 7068. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7068
English title: Statistics of forest and peatland site types in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; suotyyppi
English keywords: forest site type; peatland type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The vegetation of the forest and peatland site types in Northern Finland differ markedly from those in Southern Finland, also the vegetation of the subtypes in the north is distinctive. A line survey was conducted to study the distribution of forest and peatland site subtypes in Northern Finland.

The vegetation of rich grass-herb forest types differs little from the poorer grass-herb forest types in Northern Finland. They abundance decrease towards north. The main fresh mineral soil sites are Myrtillus site type, Hylocomnium-Myrtillus site type and their paludified forms. The abundance of the fresh mineral soil sites decreased towards north so that in Kemi the proportion was 20.5 and in Lapland 12.0%. A transition from the fresh to the drier site types is gradual. The Vaccinium site type that is dominant in the south, is rare in the north, where it is replaced by Empetrum-Vaccinium type. The proportion of dry forest sites increase towards north, in average their distribution is 25% of the lands. There are numerous subtypes, which can be merged in to four main site types: Calluna, Cladina-Calluna, Myrtillus-Cladina and Cladina site type. The peatlands are more abundant in the southern part of the study area. The most common peatland types are pine swamps.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7061, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander, Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1921). About the forest types II. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 20 no. 1 article id 7061. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7061
Keywords: ground vegetation; forest classification; forest types; site classification; yield tables
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article contains tree lectures given in the meeting of the Geographical Society in Finland on February 25th 1921.  The titles of the lectures are I Forest types in general, II Forest types as a basis for new growth and yield tables in Finland, and III Other research on forest types.  

The first lecture is a follow-up of the Cajander’s 1909 published article on forest types. It deepens the theory on forest types. The classification into forest types represents primarily different plant communities of ground cover. The types are named after the characteristic plant species, indicator plants, however, many other species appear in different abundance.

The second lecture represents the research proceedings of mensuration of forest stands of different types to compile yield tables for pine.  The forest types differ from each other distinctly on their growing preconditions, but inside one class the variation of the growing conditions is so small, that the classification can be used for yield tables, determining the basis of taxation and for classification of forest based on height over age.

The third lecture is a summary of other studies about forest type classification.  They confirm the results presented in earlier lectures. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown
article id 7057, category Article
Viljo Kujala. (1921). Havaintoja Kuusamon ja sen eteläpuolisten kuusimetsäalueiden metsä- ja suotyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 18 no. 5 article id 7057. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7057
English title: Observations of forest and peatland site types in Norway spruce areas in Kuusamo.
Original keywords: kuusi; Picea abies; kasvillisuus; metsätyyppi; suotyyppi; kuusimetsäalue
English keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; peatland type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The forest and peatland site types can be identified based on the ground vegetation. Grazing, forest fires, fellings and other interferences, altitude and soil, however, change the species composition. In Kuusamo area, the land is mountaneous, but the moraine layer is mostly continuous. Thus, there is relatively little rocky sites. In addition, the calcareous soil is more fertile than in the most parts of the country. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) is common on Hylocomium-myrtillus site type, where vegetation differs to some extent from the corresponding forest site types in the southern parts of the country. These changes seem to be caused by the thin stands in the north. In the southern parts of the Kuusamo area, the stands are denser which affects the vegetation. In areas that have been burned, the dominant tree species is mostly Betula sp., and Norway spruce may grow in understorey, and the ground vegetation is herb-rich. The forest become thinner, the higher the altitude. This changes also ground vegetation. Norway spruce is also dominant species in the spruce swamps and transition zones between spruce swamps and the open peatland types.
  • Kujala, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7042, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1920). Kasvu- ja tuottotaulut Suomen eteläpuoliskon mänty-, kuusi- ja koivumetsille. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 15 no. 4 article id 7042. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7042
English title: Growth and yield tables for the Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch in the southern part of Finland.
Original keywords: Etelä-Suomi; kuusi; Picea abies; mänty; Pinus sylvestris; metsätyyppi; koivu; Betula sp.; Keski-Suomi; kasvu- ja tuotostaulukko; runkolukusarja
English keywords: Southern Finland; forest site type; stem frequency distribution series; Central Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first proper growth and yield tables were prepared in Finland already in 1872, but they have been used little as the needs of forestry and forest sciences increased. One of the problems of the old yield tables was how the site quality classes are determined. The new growth and yield tables use the forest site type classification, which enables the use of same site types for all tree species. This makes it possible to compare the growth of different tree species in same kind of sites. The tables also use stem frequency distribution series. In the first stage, the tables were prepared for Southern and Central Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7041, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1920). Tutkimuksia metsätyyppien taksatoorisesta merkityksestä nojautuen etupäässä kotimaiseen kasvutaulujen laatimistyöhön. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 7041. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7041
English title: Studies on mensurational significance of forest site types as part of preparation of Finnish growth and yield tables.
Original keywords: metsätyypit; kasvupaikkatyypit; kasvu- ja tuotostaulukot
English keywords: tree growth; growth and yield tables; forest site types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

New growth and yield tables were prepared for Southern Finland. To finalize the tables, it had to be determined whether the forest site types developed by Cajanus could be used in mensurational research.

Comparative study was performed in 1916-1919 to study the growth of the trees in different forest site types. Total of 467 sample sites were measured in Southern and Central Finland. All the forest site types were found to have a distinctive vegetation typical to the site. It can be concluded that the ground vegetation can be used to determine the forest site type. The growth of trees was different in different forest site types, yet similar within each site type. The forest site types are uniform, natural and easy to determine, and can thus be used to classify the forest stands and used in mensurational research and a basis to growth and yield tables.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7037, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1920). Tutkimuksia Pohjois-Suomen metsätyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 14 no. 4 article id 7037. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7037
English title: Studies on forest site types in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; kasvupaikka; kasvillisuusanalyysi
English keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; vegetation analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest site classification system used in Finland is based on ground vegetation rather than the wood production capacity. A. K. Cajander has presented a detailed classification of different forest site classes in different parts of the country. This study focuses on the forest site types of Northern Finland, which are less well defined. The article presents detailed vegetation analysis and lists of plant species in different forest site types in Northern Finland. In contrast to southern parts of Finland, both the natural Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst) stands are uneven-aged in the north. The forests are also relatively thin. There is a marked difference in height of trees between the richest and poorest sites, but the dominant trees of the same site type were of similar height both in the north and south part of the study area. The differences in the height of dominant trees seem to be smaller than in Southern Finland. Also, in windy areas prone to snow damage, climate conditions can affect tree growth more than the forest site type. In more sheltered areas forest site type determines forest growth.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7020, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1919). Tutkimuksia metsien tilasta Savossa ja Karjalassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 7020. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7020
English title: Studies on state of forests in Savo and Karelia.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; linja-arviointi; metsävarat; metsätyyppi; metsänarviointi; puulajisuhteet
English keywords: forest management; forest resources; forest mensuration; forest site type; strip survey; distribution of tree species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A strip survey was made to define the forest and peatland site class distribution and the condition of the forests in Savo and Karelia in central and eastern parts of Finland. According to the survey, 24% of the forested lands are peatlands. Fresh mineral soil sites (26%) were the most common mineral soil site type. Intermediately dry forest soil sites covered 22% of the area, forest sites with grass-herb vegetation 12,79%, rich grass-herb forest soil sites 3,16% and dry forest soil sites 9,59% of the forested area. The most common tree species were Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), 39%, Betula sp., 26%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), 18%, and grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench), 10% of the forest land. The article includes a review about the wood harvesting in the forests, and their present silvicultural state. According to the study, about 30% of the forested lands (not including peatlands) were unproductive; mostly mixed alder and birch stands of poor quality or open lands.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7019, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1919). Tutkimuksia viljavan maa-alan jakautumisesta etenkin Savossa ja Karjalassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 9 no. 1 article id 7019. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7019
English title: Studies on distribution of fertile lands in Savo and Karelia.
Original keywords: viljavuus; metsätyyppi; kasvupaikkatyyppi; kasvillisuustyyppi; maalaji
English keywords: soil; fertility; peatland type; vegetation type; site class; forest soil type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents a survey on distribution of fertile lands, soil types and site classes in Savo and Karelia in the central and eastern parts of Finland. The survey was based both in existing publications and statistics, a line survey, and visual observations during field trips. The site quality classification is based on the vegetation and occurrence of indicator plant species. The article lists distribution of indicator species in different forest site types on maps of the area. In addition, a review of history of land use and agriculture give indications of the location of the fertile lands in the area. A map of the forest site types in different parts of the area illustrate the data collected from the different sources.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7014, category Article
Raf. Björkenheim. (1919). Writings on knowledge on forest types in spruce forests of German “Mittelgebirge” (mountainous areas). Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 6 no. 3 article id 7014. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7014
Keywords: vegetation; height growth; spruce; German mittelgebirge; German uplands; forest site types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The data has been collected in spruce forests in mountainous areas of Germany: Fichtelgebirge and Böhmerwald in Bavaria, Erzgebirge in Saxonia. The studied characteristics of the stand were: growth of the trees in height and diameter, and the ground vegetation. The stands were classified according Cajander’s forest site classification. The article presents the most common plants and other characteristics of every forest site type and studied stands. The relation of the height of the trees and their age is represented in diagrams for every forest type.

The presence of indicator plants is somewhat dependent on the stand age and crown coverage. The amount of species is lowest when the crown coverage is at the greatest.

As conclusion of the study it can be seen that the growth of the stand differentiates clearly depending on the forest site type, being greater at the more nutritious sites. Since the differently growing stands need different management, it would be natural to direct the management of the stand according the forest site type. 

  • Björkenheim, E-mail: rb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7012, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1916). Mäntymetsikköjen valtapuitten kasvusta mustikka- ja kanervatyyppien kankailla Salmin kruununpuistossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 6 no. 1 article id 7012. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7012
English title: The growth of the dominant trees in Scots pine forests of Myrtillus and Calluna typesailla Salmin kruununpuistossa.
Original keywords: kasvupaikkatyyppi; läpimitan kasvu; tilavuuskasvu; pituuskasvu
English keywords: diameter growth; volume growth; forest site type; site quality class; height growt
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Tree growth is one of the factors that have been used to determine the site quality. The aim of the study was to show that growth of single trees growing on a same forest site class are similar, but differ from trees growing on a different site type. To compare the tree growth, a stem analysis was performed to dominant trees in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands, measured in 15 Myrtillus type sample plots and in 15 Calluna type sample plots in state forests in Salmi, situated in north side of Lake Ladoga. The height growth when the tree was young was higher in the trees growing in the Myrtillus type than in the Calluna type. Also, the trees of same age are higher in Myrtillus type stand than in the Calluna type. In Calluna type, the height growth, however, evens out later in age than in the Myrtillus type. The volume growth of the trees begins to increase earlier in Myrtillus type, and is higher than in Calluna type. Similarly, the diameter growth in breast height is higher in the Myrtillus type.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7526, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1913). About forest site types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 1 no. 1 article id 7526. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7526
Keywords: yield tables; forest site types; forest site classes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is based on research in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, north Russia and Siberia, and Finland in years 1906-1908. The objective of the study is to find means to create forest site classes or forest types to direct practical forest management.

The article presents the classification of forests into site classes (Oxalis-Majanthemum type, Myrtillus type, Vaccinium type and Calluna type). The second part of the article represents different methods to calculate growth and yield tables for different forest site types. The conclusion of the study is that forest areas with similar vegetation and forest type can be handled in one way for forest management. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7508, category Article
Tapani Lahti. (1995). Understorey vegetation as an indicator of forest site potential in Southern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 246 article id 7508. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7508
Keywords: Norway spruce; site quality; Scots pine; classification; forest vegetation; estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The relationship between site characteristics and understorey vegetation composition was analysed with quantitative methods, especially from the viewpoint of site quality estimation. Theoretical models were applied to an empirical data set collected from the upland forests of Southern Finland comprising 104 sites dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris. L.) and 165 sites dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Site index H100 was used as an independent measure of site quality.

A new model for the estimation of site quality at sites with a known understorey vegetation composition was introduced. It is based on the application of Bayes’ theorem to the density function of site quality within the study area combined with the species-specific presence-absence response curves. The resulting probability density function may be used for calculating an estimate for the site variable

Using this method, a jackknife estimate of site index H100 was calculated separately for pine- and spruce-dominated sites. The results indicated that the cross-validation root mean squared error (RMSEcv) of the estimates improved from 2.98 m down to 2.34 m relative to the ”null” model (standard deviation of the sample distribution) in pine-dominated forests. In spruce-dominated forests RMSEcv decreased from 3.94 m down to 3.19 m.

In order to assess these results, four other estimation methods based on understorey vegetation composition were applied to the same data set. The results showed that none of the methods was clearly superior to the others. In pine-dominated forests RMSEcv varied between 2.34 and 2.47 m, and the corresponding range for spruce-dominated forest was from 3.13 to 3.57 m.

  • Lahti, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7675, category Article
Erkki Tomppo. (1992). Satellite image aided forest site fertility estimation for forest income taxation. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 229 article id 7675. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7675
Keywords: site quality; discriminant analysis; forest taxation; satellite images; segmentation; logistic regression analysis; Markov random field
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Two operative forest site class estimation methods utilizing satellite images have been developed for forest income taxation purposes. For this, two pixelwise classification methods and two post-processing methods for estimating forest site fertility are compared using different input data. The pixelwise methods are discriminant analysis, based on generalized squared distances, and logistic regression analysis. The results of pixelwise classifications are improved either with mode filtering within forest stands or assuming a Markov random field type dependence between pixels. The stand delineation is obtained by using ordinary segmentation techniques. Optionally, known stand boundaries given by the interpreter can be applied. The spectral values of images are corrected using a digital elevation model of the terrain. Some textural features are preliminary tested in classification. All methods are justified by using independent test data.

A test of the practical methods was carried out and a cost-benefit analysis computed. The estimated cost saving in site quality classification varies from 14% to 35% depending on the distribution of the site classes of the area. This means a saving of about 2.0–4.5 million FMK per year in site fertility classification for income taxation purposes. The cost savings would rise even to 60% if that version of the method were chosen where field checking is totally omitted. The classification accuracy at the forest holding level would still be similar to that of traditional method.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Tomppo, E-mail: et@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7663, category Article
Anne Sairanen. (1990). Site characteristics of Scots pine stands infected by Gremmeniella abietina in Central Finland. 1: Mineral soil sites. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 216 article id 7663. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7663
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; damage risk; Gremmeniella abietina; site classification; pathogens; Ascocalyx abietina
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Mineral soil sites where Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were suffering from Gremmeniella abietina die-back (Lagerb.) M. Morelet. were characterized and classified in Central Finland. The tree stand, ground vegetation, soil type and site topography were described in 163 sample plots in 16 stands. The sites were classified according to system developed by Cajander and numerically using TWINSPAN analysis based on the ground vegetation. The site topography of severely damaged stands was checked from colour infrared aerial photographs. The disease was most severe in depressions and frost pockets. Apart from topography no significant correlations were found between disease severity and site factors. No typical vegetational pattern of forest type of the severely affected stands could be detected. Most of the stands were growing on medium-coarse, unfertile soil with a rather thick humus layer.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Sairanen, E-mail: as@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7639, category Article
Matti Keltikangas, Jukka Laine, Pasi Puttonen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1986). Vuosina 1930-1978 metsäojitetut suot: ojitusalueiden inventoinnin tuloksia. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 193 article id 7639. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7639
English title: Peatlands drained for forestry during 1930–1978: results from field surveys of drained areas.
Original keywords: suotyypit; ojitetut suot; inventointi; kuivatusteho; ojaverkosto; metsänhoidollinen tila
English keywords: inventory; forest drainage; drainage effect; site type distribution; silvicultural condition; ditch network
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An extensive field-based survey was conducted to establish the distribution of site types on drained peatlands, the condition of the drainage networks, the post-drainage development of the tree stands, their structure and silvicultural condition and the corresponding requirements for operational measures. The data is based on sampling of the forest drainage undertaking during 1930–78 and consists of 1,312 km inventory transect, 6,030 relascope sample plots and 21,700 studied ditches.

Of the studied peatlands more than 60% were Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) mires, slightly under 20% Norway spruce (Picea abies) mires, and under 10% each treeless mires and paludified upland forest sites. The remaining peatland area that is to be considered suitable for forest drainage according to criteria used by Heikurainen (1960) now consists mainly of spruce mires and paludified upland forest types; about 1 million ha both groups still remain undrained.

The proportion of ditches in need of ditch cleaning was estimated to be under 10% in the youngest drained areas and under 30% in the oldest. The mean tree stand volumes of the drained peatlands of different site types show the same dependence on the trophic level as in earlier studies but the volumes seem to be some 5–10% lower. These results compare favourably with those of the 7th national forest inventory.

Trends in the post-drainage development of tree stand volumes and increment are also, generally, in accordance with earlier findings but have somewhat lower values. The development of the nutrient-poor site type stands, especially in Northern Finland, seems to be significantly poorer than was earlier assumed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
  • Puttonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 7638, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo. (1985). An ecological study of upland forest site classification in southern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 192 article id 7638. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7638
Keywords: understorey vegetation; ecosystem; soil properties; humus layer; fertility; forest types; forest vegetation; ecological site classification; sub-soil
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The vegetation and number of physical and chemical soil properties were studied on a random sample of closed upland forest stands in Southern Finland. The material consists of a total of 410 sample plots. Two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) was carried out in order to produce a hierarchical clustering of samples on the basis of the vegetation data. Discriminant analysis and analysis of variance were applied in order to find environmental correlations of the vegetation clustering.

The vegetation was found to indicate the nutrient regime of the humus layer well, but to a less extent the properties of the sub-soil. The understorey vegetation was found to be jointly dependent on the site fertility and on the properties of the tree stand, especially on the tree species composition. Although the forest vegetation appears to be distributed rather continuously along an axis of increasing site fertility, relatively unambiguous classification can be based on the appearance of indicator species and species groups.

The results of the study were interpreted as indication that operational site classification done using the vegetation is rather good method for classification in closed forest stands. Different methods produce relatively consistent, natural and ecologically interpretable classifications. The results also imply that the vegetation cover and the humus layer develop concurrently during the development of the ecosystem, but the differentiation of the site type is regulated simultaneously by a number of interacting factors ranging from mineralogical properties of the parent material to the topographical exposition of the site. As the plant cover depicts all these primary factors simultaneously, only a relatively rough ecological site classification can be based on the vegetation.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7631, category Article
Carl Johan Westman. (1983). Taimitarhamaiden fysikaalisia ja kemiallisia ominaisuuksia sekä niiden suhde orgaanisen aineksen määrään. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 184 article id 7631. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7631
English title: Physical and physio-chemical properties of forest tree nursery soils and their relation to the amount of organic matter.
Original keywords: viljavuus; taimitarhat; turve; maa; kationinvaihtokapasiteetti; kasvualusta; orgaaninen aines; vedenpidätyskyky
English keywords: peat; soil density; soil; substrate; fertility; nurseries; cation exchange capacity; organic matter; water retention capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aims of the present study were to determine physical and physio-chemical properties of some Finnish forest tree nursery soils, and to examine relationships between these properties and the amount of organic matter in the soil.

The following soil tillage layer properties of 33 fields belonging to 8 forest tree nurseries were determined: soil particle size distribution, organic matter content, bulk density and density of solids, total pore space, soil water volume at potentials pF 2.0 and 4.2, available water content and air space at potential pF 2.0, active acidity, electrical conductivity index and cation exchange capacities at pH 4.5 and 8.0. The soil texture class of the tillage layer parent material was sand, only in a few cases did higher percentage of silt and clay indicate a morainic nature of parent material. The amount of organic material in the soils varied within wide limits, reflecting differences in amelioration policy between the single nurseries.

Relationships between the physical properties of the soil parent material and those related to fertility were in most cases strongly influenced by the amount of soil organic matter. Soil density values decreased as the organic matter content increased from 2 to 25%, giving rise to the increase in the total pore space. However, the amount of water held at potential pF 2.0 and the available water content did not increase with increasing organic matter content. This was due to the absence of the particle fraction in the sand. Nursery soil amelioration, involving in most cases a mixture of Sphagnum peat with sand, thus gives rise to an increase in the content of drainable water.

Cation exchange capacities were positively correlated with the organic matter content. However, the absolute number of exchange sites expressed as equivalents in the tillage layer did not increase in accordance with the increase in organic matter content due to the influence of the organic matter content upon the ratio of solids in the voids.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7619, category Article
Carl Johan Westman. (1981). Fertility of surface peat in relation to the site type and potential stand growth. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 172 article id 7619. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7619
Keywords: peatlands; fertility; site classification; sedge mires
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Fertility of surface peat from sedge pine mires was studied by measuring several edaphic growth factors: bulk density, volume weight of organic matter, ash content, acidity, electric conductivity, effective cation exchange capacity, degree of base saturation, and total contents of N, P, K, Ca and Mg. The 168 temporal sample plots were situated on virgin sedge mires in different parts of Finland, and the 30 permanent sample plots on two uniform sedge mires.

The results showed that peat bulk density and volume weight of organic matter tend to increase with increasing site quality. Ash content increased gradually in the site series from small sedge mire to the herb-rich sedge mire. The relationship between the total content of macronutrients in peat and the site quality is clear. The importance of bulk density in evaluating the site quality is further emphasized when taking into account its significant correlation to contents of N and P. The soil variables follow the accepted quality gradient of the site series. Consequently, the plant sociologically based site classification seems to reflect satisfactorily the average soil properties. However, the within site variation was significant.

  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7594, category Article
Yrjö Kangas. (1977). Measurement of stand classification based on height over age: Part 3. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 160 article id 7594. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7594
Keywords: site index; factor analysis; stand; method development; height over age classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The data used to control the developed methods are presented in chapter two. The third chapter presents the statistical analysis conducted. The factor analysis shows that tree stand characteristics must be divided into three factors to able the information needed for site indexing to distinguish different site classes. The phases of model development are presented and the results of calculations with control data are shown.   

The results indicate that for calculations of nature-normal forests the suitable amount of tree stand characters for creating the site indexing function, is three.  These are: number of trees (N), basal area of the stand (G) and mean height (H).

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

  • Kangas, E-mail: yk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7586, category Article
Yrjö Kangas. (1976). Measurement of stand classification based on height over age: Part 1-2: Theoretical basis. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 152 article id 7586. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7586
Keywords: site index; stand; method development; theory; height over age classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is the first part of a wider project aiming to study the measurement practices of stand’s height-over-age based classifications and to develop new methods for actually measuring the side index.  

The first part of the article presents the concepts of site indexing and discusses it with a mathematical model. The second part of the article examines the structure of site indexing system regarding the reliability of the method. Third part presents the factors affecting the method development and the fourth part discusses the possible site index classes and their characteristics.   

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

  • Kangas, E-mail: yk@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Climate resilient and sustainable forest management – Research article

article id 23067, category Climate resilient and sustainable forest management – Research article
Lucas N. López, Hanne K. Sjølie, Abbas Nabhani, Francisco X. Aguilar. (2024). Impacts of biodiversity and carbon policies on the management of Norwegian forest and its ecosystem services. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 4 article id 23067. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23067
Keywords: simulation; optimization; site productivity; bio-economic modeling; NorFor; regional impacts; TreeSim
Highlights: National-level biodiversity and carbon forest sector policies modelled in a simulation-optimization framework; Impacts of policies on management along site productivity gradients estimated; Policies vary in impact across productivity gradients with regional implications.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Measures to enhance boreal forests’ biodiversity and climate change mitigation potential are high on the policy agenda. Site productivity influences management, ecological attributes, and economic outcomes. However, national-level analyses of management implementation in response to policies considering site productivity are lacking. We analyzed impacts of a carbon policy (Carb), a biodiversity policy (Bio) and a combined biodiversity and carbon policy (BioCarb) in Norway using a simulation-optimization framework, assessing impacts on forest management, timber harvest, ecological attributes, and carbon fluxes until year 2140. Management alternatives were simulated in the single-tree simulator TreeSim before being fed into a market model NorFor to compare policy outcomes to a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario. All policies led to decreased harvests. Old forests expanded from the current 3% to cover 21% or more of the productive forest area in all scenarios. Impacts of policies depended on site productivity. On low-productive land, management under Bio mirrored BAU, while the Carb and BioCarb policies yielded more set-asides. On high-productive land, management intensity under the Carb policy was similar to BAU but the Bio and BioCarb policies resulted in more set-asides and more old forest.  Thus, on low-productive land, the carbon policy showed to have the strongest impact on forest management, while on high-productive land, the biodiversity policy had the strongest impact. With geographical site-productivity gradients, the two policies exhibited different regional effects. The study shows that ex-ante analyses with appropriate tools can provide relevant information of multiple consequences beyond the stated aims which should be considered in policy design.
  • López, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, P.O. Box 2400, Koppang, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6860-3408 E-mail: lucas.lopez@inn.no (email)
  • Sjølie, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, P.O. Box 2400, Koppang, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8099-3521 E-mail: hanne.sjolie@inn.no
  • Nabhani, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, P.O. Box 2400, Koppang, Norway E-mail: abbas.nabhani@inn.no
  • Aguilar, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Economics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: francisco.aguilar@slu.se

Category : Research article

article id 23004, category Research article
Per Nordin, Erika Olofsson, Karin Hjelm. (2023). Within-site adaptation: growth and mortality of Norway spruce, Scots pine and silver birch seedlings in different planting positions across a soil moisture gradient. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 23004. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23004
Keywords: regeneration; microsite; decision making; mounding; planting; depth-to-water
Highlights: A soil moisture map could be used to support the choice of planting position for different soil moisture conditions; Mounds reduced mortality rates for conifers when conditions were wet, but at drier conditions differences between planting positions were small; Contradictory, silver birch had higher survival in lower planting positions compared with mounds; Height and diameter were higher in mounds for conifers, but only small differences occurred between planting positions for silver birch.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Adapting to site conditions is a central part of forest regeneration and can be done through selection of different planting positions. Requirements are tree species specific, and the use of soil moisture maps could be a way to support decision making in forest regeneration planning. At two experimental sites with varying soil moisture conditions in southern Sweden Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) seedlings were planted in four different planting positions following mounding site preparation; Depression, Hinge, Mound and Unscarified. Soil moisture estimates were obtained from a high-resolution depth-to-water raster for each planting spot. The effect of soil moisture, planting position and their interactions on mortality, height and diameter was evaluated for each tree species. In wet conditions mounds proved to be the best option to minimize seedling mortality for conifers, but with decreasing soil moisture, differences between the planting positions decreased. Birch on the other hand had the greatest survival in the hinge. The coniferous species displayed increased height and diameter when planted in mounds independent of the soil moisture conditions, whereas silver birch was less dependent on a specific planting position. Results from this study shows that a soil moisture map can explain mortality, height and diameter and thus can be a useful tool when choosing planting position in different soil moisture conditions.
article id 10762, category Research article
Karri Uotila, Jaana Luoranen, Timo Saksa, Tiina Laine, Juha Heiskanen. (2022). Long-term growth response of Norway spruce in different mounding and vegetation control treatments on fine-textured soils. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 4 article id 10762. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10762
Keywords: boreal forest; establishment; regeneration; site preparation; plantation; tree growth; scarification; fine-textured soils; mechanical vegetation control
Highlights: Spot and ditch mounding methods favoured spruce sapling development on fine-textured soils; Inverted and unprepared plots showed the weakest growth; Vegetation control suppressed the growth differences between site preparation methods; Vegetation control reduced the density of resprouts after early cleaning.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Mechanical site preparation (MSP) is a common practice that precedes the planting of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in Nordic forests. Mounding has become the most used method in spruce planting in recent years. This study examined the effects of different mounding treatments (spot and ditch mounding, inversion, unprepared control with or without herbicide application) and a mechanical vegetation control (MVC) treatment done 3–4 years after planting on the post-planting growth of spruce container seedlings and their development to saplings during the first 11–13 years on two forest till soils in central Finland, one on flat terrain and other on a southwest slope. On these fine-textured soils the spot and ditch mounding methods favoured spruce saplings development. Inversion and unprepared plots showed weakest growth. On the site with flat terrain, 11 years post planting, spruce saplings were 78–144 cm (38–80%) taller and their breast height diameters were 11–13 mm (60–74%) thicker for ditch or spot mounding than for inversion or herbicide treatment. On the site with sloped terrain the differences were minor between the MSP treatments. MVC improved spruce height growth on sites which did not have intensive MSP, especially on control saplings planted on unprepared soil in herbicide and inversion treatments. On the flat terrain, MVC reduced the density of resprouts to be removed later in pre-commercial thinning. As a conclusion, spot or ditch mounding favoured the growth of spruce over inversion especially on flat terrain with fine-textured soil.

  • Uotila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: karri.uotila@luke.fi (email)
  • Luoranen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6970-2030 E-mail: jaana.luoranen@luke.fi
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1776-2357 E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi
  • Laine, Metsä Forest, Revontulenpuisto 2, FI-02100 Espoo, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6448-8274 E-mail: tiina.laine@metsagroup.com
  • Heiskanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0549-835X E-mail: juha.heiskanen@luke.fi
article id 10528, category Research article
Jaana Luoranen, Heli Viiri. (2021). Comparison of the planting success and risks of pine weevil damage on mineral soil and drained peatland sites three years after planting. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10528. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10528
Keywords: survival; planting; mechanical site preparation; ground vegetation; forest regeneration; Hylobius abietis
Highlights: The planting success was poorer on peatland sites than on mineral soil; Dense ground vegetation cover is more probable on peatland than on mineral soil; No differences in pine weevil feeding damage on mineral soil and peatland were found; Cultivated mineral soil reduced the vegetation cover, feeding damage and seedling mortality.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Over 20% of regeneration operations will be on drained peatland in the next decade in Finland. There are only a few studies comparing the planting success and the risk of pine weevil (Hylobius abetis (L.) feeding damage on mineral soil and drained peatland. Thirty sites planted with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) container seedlings in 2009 in Southern and Central Finland were inventoried three growing seasons after planting. Prediction models for the probability of survival, pine weevil damage and the presence of ground vegetation cover were done separately for peatland and mineral soil sites. The planting success was 17% lower on peatland sites (1379 surviving seedlings ha–1) than on mineral soil (1654 seedlings ha–1). The factors explaining the survival were the ground vegetation cover and type of the planting spot on the peatland, and the ground vegetation cover on mineral soil. On mineral soil, 76% of the planting spots were on cultivated mineral soil while on peatland only 28% of the seedlings were planted on similar spots. There were also fewer seedlings that were surrounded by dense ground vegetation on mineral soil (4%) than on peatland (14%). Pine weevil feeding damage did not differ significantly on peatland (23%) or mineral soil (18%). The more time there was from clear-cutting, the more the probability of pine weevil feeding damage was reduced on both soil classes. Additionally, cover vegetation in the vicinity of the seedlings increased on mineral soil. Cultivated planting spots, especially those covered by mineral soil, prevented pine weevil feeding and reduced the harmful effects of vegetation on the seedlings both on mineral soil and peatland.

article id 10369, category Research article
Tiina Laine, Ville Kankaanhuhta, Juho Rantala, Timo Saksa. (2020). Effects of spot mounding and inverting on growth of conifers, exposed mineral soil and natural birch regeneration. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 5 article id 10369. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10369
Keywords: boreal forest; regeneration; site preparation; mounding; young stand management
Highlights: There were 21% fewer naturally regenerated birches ha–1 in inverted areas (22 951) compared to spot mounded areas (29 086); Spot mounding exposed slightly, but not statistically significantly, larger area of mineral soil than inverting; There was no difference in seedling mortality or growth between the site preparation methods.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Nordic forests, consistent evidence about better seedling survival rate and increased growth due to site preparation have been obtained in numerous studies. Proper site preparation method can reduce costs of the whole regeneration chain through its effects on survival of planted seedlings, abundance of natural regeneration and competition in early stand development. This study compared the natural regeneration of birches (silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and downy birch (B. pubescens Ehrh.)), amount of exposed mineral soil, and growth of planted seedlings between spot mounding and inverting site preparation methods. Present study was conducted in eight forest stands established in 2012 or 2015. Even though difference was not statistically significant, inverting exposed less mineral soil than spot mounding and thus reduced the natural regeneration of birch seedlings by 6135 seedlings ha–1 compared to spot mounding. However, the variation between regeneration areas was remarkable. There was no difference in seedling mortality or growth between the site preparation methods. In order to achieve high growth of conifers, moderate amount of exposed mineral soil and thus less naturally regenerated birch, inverting should be favored over spot mounding.

  • Laine, Metsä Group, P.O. Box 208, FI-70101 Kuopio, Finland E-mail: tiina.laine@metsagroup.com (email)
  • Kankaanhuhta, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ville.kankaanhuhta@luke.fi
  • Rantala, Metsä Group, P.O. Box 10, FI-02020 METSÄ, Finland E-mail: juho.rantala@metsagroup.com
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi
article id 10036, category Research article
Karin Hjelm, Lars Rytter. (2018). The demand of hybrid aspen (Populus tremula × P. tremuloides) on site conditions for a successful establishment on forest land. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 5 article id 10036. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10036
Keywords: regeneration; site preparation; clone effects; poplars; soil acidity
Highlights: Low pH (below 3.5) reduced growth, but not survival, in a greenhouse study; Site preparation methods did not affect survival in field, but differences were found for growth; Mounding had generally the best effect on growth; Clonal differences were found that could be useful for improving establishment and growth.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides Michx.) is a deciduous tree species suitable for producing large amounts of renewable biomass during short rotations. Its potential under North European conditions could be largely extended if not only agricultural land but also forest land was used for cultivation. Unfortunately, the knowledge of appropriate forest site conditions and effects of site preparation methods on hybrid aspen establishment is limited. In this paper, two studies that explore these questions are presented. In the first study, the sensitivity to acid soils was tested under greenhouse conditions in two type of soils: a) peat soil limed to certain pH levels (3.4–5.7) and b) collected forest soils where pH varied from 3.9 to 5.3. The lowest pH level resulted in reduced growth, elsewhere no significant differences were found. The second study was applied in the field and investigated the effect of four site preparation methods on survival and growth. The methods were: 1) control with no site preparation, 2) patch scarification, 3) mounding and 4) soil inversion. While no differences were found for survival, mounding was generally the method with the highest growth and patch scarification was least successful. The result was probably an effect of good soil aeration and less competition from vegetation after mounding. The field study also revealed clonal differences in growth performance, which stresses the importance of clone selection prior to planting. The results of these studies indicate that hybrid aspen is less sensitive to variation in pH and site preparation methods compared with other poplar species, as have been found in similar studies.

  • Hjelm, Skogforsk, Ekebo 2250, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: karin.hjelm@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Rytter, Skogforsk, Ekebo 2250, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6183-4832 E-mail: lars.rytter@skogforsk.se
article id 9948, category Research article
Juha Heiskanen, Ville Hallikainen, Jori Uusitalo, Hannu Ilvesniemi. (2018). Co-variation relations of physical soil properties and site characteristics of Finnish upland forests. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 3 article id 9948. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9948
Keywords: site quality; vegetation; bulk density; trafficability; particle size; humus layer; water retention
Highlights: Atmospheric temperature sum is related to site index H100 as a covariate;Soil pH and water retention at field capacity (FC) are also closely related to H100;Fine fraction is related to water retention at FC, soil layer and site type;Fine fraction co-varies also with temperature sum, H100 and slope.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Physical soil properties have a marked influence on the quality of forest sites and on the preconditions for forest growth and management. In this study, water retention characteristics (WRC) and related physical soil properties in addition to vegetation coverage and tree stand data were studied at upland forest sites in Finland. Fixed and mixed models between soil and site characteristics were formed to estimate physical and hydrologic soil characteristics and the site quality with indirect co-varying variables. In the present data, the site quality index (H100) shows a high coefficient of determination in respect to the temperature sum. It is also related to soil fine fraction content, topsoil pH and water retention at field capacity. The thickness of the humus layer is predictable from the pH and cover of xeric and mesic plant species. The soil fine fraction content (clay + silt) is closely related to water retention at field capacity, the soil layer and site type, and without WRC to the temperature sum and site index and type, as well as the slope angle. The soil bulk density is related to organic matter, depth (layer) or alternatively to organic matter, slope and field estimated textural class (fine, medium, coarse). Water retention characteristics were found to be best determinable by the fine fraction content, depth and bulk density. Water content and air-filled porosity at field capacity are closely related to the fine fraction. This study provides novel models for further investigations that aim at improved prediction models for forest growth, hydrology and trafficability.

  • Heiskanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Soil ecosystems, Neulaniementie 5, FI-70100 Kuopio, Finland E-mail: juha.heiskanen@luke.fi (email)
  • Hallikainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Applied statistical methods, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ville.hallikainen@luke.fi
  • Uusitalo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Forest technology and logistics, Korkeakoulunkatu 7, FI-33720 Tampere, Finland E-mail: jori.uusitalo@luke.fi
  • Ilvesniemi, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Biorefinery and bioproducts, Tietotie 2, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland E-mail: hannu.ilvesniemi@luke.fi
article id 6986, category Research article
Mari Tilk, Tea Tullus, Katri Ots. (2017). Effects of environmental factors on the species richness, composition and community horizontal structure of vascular plants in Scots pine forests on fixed sand dunes. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 3 article id 6986. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.6986
Keywords: biodiversity; inland dunes; microhabitats; soil conditions; vegetation–site relationships
Highlights: Factors affecting the species richness, composition and horizontal structure of vascular plants are related to dune topography, resulting in the differentiation of soils and therefore complexes of different microhabitats that are populated by various vascular plant species and causing vegetation zonation.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Different environmental factors were studied to determine which factors influence the species richness, composition and structure of vascular plants in Pinus sylvestris L. forests in a fixed dune landscape in south-western Estonia. In addition to site topographic factors, different environmental parameters were investigated. Thirty-four vascular plant species were recorded in 232 quadrats. The most abundant species was Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., which was in 82.8% of quadrats, followed by Vaccinium myrtillus L. (74.1%), Melampyrum pratense L. (71.1%) and Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. (69.8%). The multiple response permutation procedure (MRPP) showed considerable differences in species composition at the bottoms of dunes compared with that on the slopes and at the tops of dunes. Indicator species analysis (ISA) determined species exhibited characteristics specific to zone: V. myrtillus had the highest indicator value at the bottoms of dunes; Calluna vulgaris L., at the tops. Soils were Haplic Podzols, and the presence of humus horizon depended on zone. Soil conditions on the dunes were variable and site specific, in general, soils at the bottoms of the dunes were more acidic and moist compared with those of the slopes and tops of the dunes, and the nutrient content decreased toward the dune tops. According to non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and linear mixed model analyses, species coverage, composition and richness were controlled by site-specific factors such as absolute height, location and aspect of the quadrat on the dune; soil nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus contents; soil pH and moisture; light conditions; and the thickness of the litter horizon.

  • Tilk, Department of Silviculture, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu, Estonia, 51014; Tallinn Botanic Garden, Kloostrimetsa Road 52, Tallinn, Estonia, 11913 E-mail: Mari.Tilk@botaanikaaed.ee (email)
  • Tullus, Department of Silviculture, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu, Estonia, 51014 E-mail: Tea.Tullus@emu.ee
  • Ots, Department of Silviculture, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu, Estonia, 51014 E-mail: Katri.Ots@emu.ee
article id 1386, category Research article
Håkan Lideskog, Magnus Karlberg. (2016). Simulated continuous mounding improvements through ideal machine vision and control. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 1386. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1386
Keywords: site preparation; silviculture; remote sensing; scarification; clearcut obstacles; mounding simulation; work procedures
Highlights: Different strategies for how to utilise machine vision to streamline the mounding head movements were developed and evaluated; The theoretical minimum rate of encountered obstacles while utilising machine vision in continuous mounding is presented, provided that an optimal continuous mounding has been performed; The needed minimum resolution of a machine vision system at work on a clearcut area was found.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To promote the growth and survival of regenerated forests, site preparation prior to tree planting on clearcuts is necessary. This is often performed with scarifiers, either through trenching or mounding. Mounding is generally considered better in a plant survival perspective but is inefficient on obstacle-rich clearcuts. By utilising machine vision through e.g. remote sensing methods, new strategies can enable efficient mound positioning. In this paper, three realistic strategies utilizing ideal clearcut object identification through machine vision have been developed that can be used for more efficient mounding. The results show that mounding efficiency can be significantly improved with a new mound positioning strategy that employs ideal object identification, especially on obstacle-rich clearcuts.

 

 

  • Lideskog, Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Division of Product and Production Development, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: hakan.lideskog@ltu.se (email)
  • Karlberg, Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Division of Product and Production Development, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: magnus.karlberg@ltu.se
article id 1312, category Research article
Simon Karl Nils Berg, Tomas Nordfjell, Dan Bergström. (2015). Effect of stump size and timing of stump harvesting on ground disturbance and root breakage diameter. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 5 article id 1312. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1312
Keywords: Picea abies; scarification; Sweden; stump harrow; Ecorex30; site impact; glacial till soil
Highlights: The ground disturbance and root breakage diameter during conventional stump harvesting on mineral soil were quantified; A function for estimating the disturbed area based on stump size was constructed; Many fine roots were found to be harvested; The total ground disturbance at the site after stump harvesting was similar to that caused by soil scarification.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Stump wood is a possible alternative to fossil fuel. Its harvesting, however, disturbs the ground and this has not yet been quantified at stump level. Such disturbance is likely to be dependent on stump size, type of soil and timing of stump harvesting. Therefore, we measured ground disturbance and root breakage diameter at two Norway spruce sites with sandy glacial till soil. The sites were harvested with a fork type head, 6 and 18 months after clear cutting. Measurements were made within 2 weeks of harvest. No difference was found between the two sites. The mean area of disturbed ground was 6.06 (std 3.14) m2 per stump and increased exponentially with stump size. A regression function modelling the relationship was constructed. Unexpectedly, many fine roots where extracted in the harvest. The arithmetic and basal area weighted mean root breakage diameter was 4.6 (std 2.2) and 29.5 (std 17.9) mm, respectively. There seems to be a limited increase in root breakage diameter with increased stump size. The small root breakage diameter is associated with reduced fuel quality and greater nutrient removal. It appears that much of the ground disturbance is associated with the creation of ruts rather than stump harvest per se. Stump harvesting disturbs a larger percentage of the area of a harvested site than mounding. Postponing stump harvest by one year did not decrease the ground disturbance or increase the root breakage diameter. To achieve less disturbance and larger root breakage diameter, probably new stump harvesting technology is required.

  • Berg, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: phd.simon.berg@gmail.com (email)
  • Nordfjell, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tomas.nordfjell@slu.se
  • Bergström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: dan.bergstrom@slu.se
article id 903, category Research article
Mikko Hyppönen, Ville Hallikainen, Juhani Niemelä, Pasi Rautio. (2013). The contradictory role of understory vegetation on the success of Scots pine regeneration. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 1 article id 903. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.903
Keywords: site preparation; seedling establishment; seedling mortality; field- and ground-layer vegetation; modelling approach; initial growth; prescribed burning
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In North-East Finland, severe problems have been encountered in the natural regeneration of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) on sites where regeneration through site preparation usually is quite successful. We hypothesized that in that area understory vegetation, especially heather (Calluna vulgaris), crowberry (Empetrum hermaphroditum), mosses and lichens, could play a key role in this pattern. We found that in general, ground- and field-layer vegetation tends to be in a negative relationship with the establishment, growth and survival of pine seedlings. Some positive relationships were also observed. Lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idea) tended to improve seedling height growth. Heather, instead, seemed to have a contradictory role. It was positively related to seedling establishment but negatively to seedling growth. This dual role raises further questions about the primary reasons for the regeneration problems in North-East Finland. All in all, our results suggest that conventional methods of forest regeneration in these kinds of areas are not always effective enough and additional measures are needed. These might include severe prescribed burning along with site preparation in order to decrease the impact of the dominant ground- and field-layer vegetation on the success of Scots pine regeneration.
  • Hyppönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: mikko.hypponen@metla.fi (email)
  • Hallikainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ville.hallikainen@metla.fi
  • Niemelä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jn@nn.fi
  • Rautio, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: pasi.rautio@metla.fi
article id 920, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Jaakko Repola, Mikko Moilanen, Markku Saarinen. (2012). Seedling establishment on small cutting areas with or without site preparation in a drained spruce mire – a case study in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 5 article id 920. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.920
Keywords: Picea abies; site preparation; canopy gaps; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; seedling establishment; clear-cut
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A large proportion of drained spruce mire stands is currently approaching regeneration maturity in Finland. We studied the effect of cutting – small canopy openings (78, 177, and 314 m2) and small clear-cuts (0.25–0.37 ha) – with or without site preparation (scalping) on the establishment of natural Norway spruce seedlings in one experimental drained spruce mire stand in northern Finland. The cuttings were made in winter 2004–2005 and site preparation with scalping in early June 2005. The experimental design was composed of four blocks with altogether four clear-cuts and 33 canopy openings. The seedling establishment was surveyed annually (2006, 2008–2010) from five circular sample plots (one 10 m2 and four 5 m2 plots in size) located within the canopy openings and from 18 circular 5 m2 sample plots systematically located in the scalped and untreated halves of the clear-cuts. Site preparation was found unnecessary, because it resulted in a clearly lower number of seedlings in the openings. A slight negative effect was also found in the clear-cuts. In the two years following the cuttings, the number of seedlings increased quickly in the canopy openings, but more gradually in the clear-cut areas. In 2010, on average 15 500 new seedlings were observed in the canopy openings and 6700 in the clear-cut areas, of which 5050 and 1200, respectively, were >0.1 m tall spruces. The proportion of birch increased in the last two years, being ca. 22% in the openings and 45% in the clear-cuts in 2010. The spatial distribution of seedlings was more uneven in the clear-cuts than in the openings, with 41% and 20% of survey plots empty, respectively.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Repola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@metla.fi
  • Moilanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Oulu Unit, P.O. Box 413, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: mikko.moilanen@metla.fi
  • Saarinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: markku.saarinen@metla.fi
article id 906, category Research article
Eivind Meen, Anders Nielsen, Mikael Ohlson. (2012). Forest stand modelling as a tool to predict performance of the understory herb Cornus suecica. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 4 article id 906. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.906
Keywords: canopy layer; field layer; stand structure dynamics; forest simulator; composite models; Akaike’s information criterion
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest simulation models have been widely used to predict future stand structure. Generally these models do not include the understory vegetation and its response on stand structure change or other environmental factors. Previous simulation studies have shown that stand structure related variables, e.g. basal area, can explain diversity of the forest floor vegetation in boreal forests. We hypothesise that such variables also can be used to explain the performance of understory species and we conceptualise how plant ecology and forest modelling can be combined to predict the performance of understory plants in Norwegian boreal forests. We predict the performance of an understory plant species (Cornus suecica) over time using simulated values of forest variables as input to models expressing the relationship between forest environment variables and plant performance variables (viz. plant height, plant dry weight, number of flowers, number of branches and number of leaves). We also present relationships between plant performance and explanatory variables commonly used in basic ecological research, variables that currently not are readily compatible with forest simulators (e.g. soil chemical variables).We found basal area of canopy trees being the most important explanatory variable explaining C. suecica performance. The performance variable dry weight was predicted by one single model whereas the other performance variables were best predicted by model averaging. Forest simulations for 150 years showed values of plant performance of C. suecica to be reduced during forest succession.
  • Meen, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: eivind.meen@umb.no (email)
  • Nielsen, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: an@nn.no
  • Ohlson, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: mo@nn.no
article id 54, category Research article
Urban Nilsson, Björn Elfving, Kjell Karlsson. (2012). Productivity of Norway spruce compared to Scots pine in the interior of northern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 2 article id 54. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.54
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; current annual increment; mean annual increment; Picea abies; site index; yield
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Productivity of Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was studied in 12 paired plots in the interior of northern Sweden. Stands were established between 1928 and 1959; yield plots were established between 1974 and 1983 during pre-commercial thinning of the stands. Gross stem-wood production was significantly higher for Scots pine than for Norway spruce, stem-wood production by Norway spruce being 29.4% that of Scots pine. The site index for Norway spruce was lower than for Scots pine at all sites except one; the average difference in site index was 4.8 m. The simulated maximum mean annual increment (MAImax) during the rotation was 19% higher than the MAImax estimated with the site index for Scots pine, whereas simulated MAImax and MAImax estimated from the site index was about the same for Norway spruce. The simulations also indicated that MAI peaked about 50 years later for Norway spruce than for Scots pine. More small trees were included in the diameter distribution of Norway spruce than of Scots pine resulting in a lower stem-wood volume for Norway spruce when stands with the same dominant height were compared. This study shows that the difference in growth and rotation length between Scots pine and Norway spruce has implications when choosing which species to grow in the interior of northern Sweden.
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: urban.nilsson@slu.se (email)
  • Elfving, SLU, Forest Ecology and Management, Umeå, Sweden E-mail: be@nn.se
  • Karlsson, SLU, Unit of Field Based Research, Asa, Sweden E-mail: kk@nn.se
article id 66, category Research article
Monika Strömgren, Kristina Mjöfors, Björn Holmström, Achim Grelle. (2012). Soil CO2 flux during the first years after stump harvesting in two Swedish forests. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 66. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.66
Keywords: stump removal; Picea abies; C stock; site preparation; soil C; soil disturbance; soil respiration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
One way of increasing the supply of renewable energy, thereby decreasing the use of fossil fuels, is to extract the stumps that remain after final stem harvesting. However, little is known about the environmental consequences of stump harvesting, and how ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, are affected by the practice. In the present paper, the effects on the soil carbon pool during the first months and years after stump harvesting in former Norway spruce stands are presented. The study was performed at two sites in mid- and southern Sweden. At both sites, the soil CO2 flux was measured on several occasions with a portable respiration system, to compare plots on which stump harvesting had occurred, with reference plots. At one of the sites, CO2 exchange was also followed continuously by means of eddy-covariance measurements before and after stump harvesting. Since there was no vegetation at the beginning of the study, almost all emitted CO2 could be assumed to come from heterotrophic sources, and the soil CO2 flux was measured. This study shows that the effect of stump harvesting on CO2 flux or soil decomposition processes is small or absent compared to site preparation such as mounding in a short-term perspective of months and years. The long-term consequences of stump harvesting are, however, still uncertain.
  • Strömgren, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: monika.stromgren@slu.se (email)
  • Mjöfors, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: km@nn.se
  • Holmström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: bh@nn.fi
  • Grelle, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Ecology, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ag@nn.se
article id 89, category Research article
Russell Grenfell, Tuomas Aakala, Timo Kuuluvainen. (2011). Microsite occupancy and the spatial structure of understorey regeneration in three late-successional Norway spruce forests in northern Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 89. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.89
Keywords: boreal forest; disturbance; microsite; spatial correlation; stand structure; natural forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We compared microsite occupancy and three spatial structure of regeneration in three primeval late-successional Norway spruce dominated forests. One area lay in the middle boreal zone in Russia (Dvina-Pinega) where larger-scale disturbance from bark beetles and drought had occurred; the other areas lay in the northern boreal zone, one in Finland (Pallas-Ylläs) had encountered only small-scale disturbance, and one in Russia (Kazkim) had been influenced by fire. We mapped all spruce (Picea abies) and birch (Betula pendula and Betula pubescens) trees with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 10 cm on 40 m 400 m plots, and those with DBH < 10 cm on 2 m or 4 m 400 m subplots. On the subplots we also recorded microsite occupancy and estimated microsite availability. At all study areas small seedlings (h < 0.3 m) of both spruce and birch were found largely on disturbance-related microsites. Birch saplings (h ≥ 1.3 m, DBH < 10 cm) disproportionately occupied deadwood-related microsites at Dvina-Pinega. In contrast, spruce saplings at all study areas, and birch saplings at Kazkim and Pallas-Ylläs, showed less, or no, preference. Our results thus confirm the importance of disturbance-related microsites for regeneration establishment, but not necessarily for long-term survival. No spatial segregation between the overstorey (DBH ≥ 10 cm) and saplings (h ≥ 1.3 m, DBH < 10 cm) or seedlings (h < 1.3 m) was found at Pallas-Ylläs or Kazkim, and only three instances of very weak segregation were found at Dvina-Pinega. This suggests that the regeneration gap concept may not be useful for describing the regeneration dynamics of primeval boreal forests.
  • Grenfell, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: russell.grenfell@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Aakala, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ta@nn.fi
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
article id 87, category Research article
Radek Bace, Miroslav Svoboda, Pavel Janda. (2011). Density and height structure of seedlings in subalpine spruce forests of Central Europe: logs vs. stumps as a favourable substrate. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 87. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.87
Keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; coarse woody debris; microsite; natural regeneration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Decaying logs and stumps provide an important seedling substrate in natural subalpine forests. However, only stumps present such a role in managed forests. The aim of this study was to assess the differences in the process of seedling colonization between logs and stumps. The study was carried out in the Czech Republic, in two old-growth subalpine spruce forests located in the Bohemian Forest and Ash Mts., dominated by Athyrium distentifolium Opiz and Vaccinium myrtillus L. undergrowth, respectively. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) regeneration growing on logs, stumps and non-coarse woody debris (CWD) microsites was surveyed. Regeneration (height 0–2.0 m) densities exceeded 5000 individuals per ha on both sites. The average density of P. abies regeneration per square meter of substrate was 0.3-5.7-19.6 and 0.5-3.8-11.0 on non-CWD microsites, logs and stumps, located in A. distentifolium and V. myrtillus undergrowth, respectively. Stumps and non-CWD microsites dominated by V. myrtillus, supported a higher proportion of taller seedlings per plot compared to the small seedlings growing on logs and non-CWD dominated by A. distentifolium ground-cover. The disproportion in regeneration densities between the stumps and the original logs decreased with increasing stages of decay. The tallest regeneration growing on stumps (root-soil plates) was significantly older than that growing on the logs (stems). Based on these two latter findings, the stumps appeared to provide suitable seedling substrates several years earlier than the logs did. Therefore, we conclude that the stumps play a more important role (relative to their covered area, 21–28 m2 ha–1) in terms of suitable microsites for regeneration, than the logs do.
  • Bace, Czech University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic E-mail: bace@fld.czu.cz (email)
  • Svoboda, Czech University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic E-mail: ms@nn.cz
  • Janda, Czech University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic E-mail: pv@nn.cz
article id 40, category Research article
Jorge Martín-García, Elba Espiga, Valentín Pando, Julio Javier Diez. (2011). Factors influencing endophytic communities in poplar plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 2 article id 40. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.40
Keywords: endophyte; poplar; management; site quality; foliar nutrients; forest health
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The fungal species associated with leaves and twigs from stands of Populus x euramericana in northern Spain were studied with the aim of evaluating the effects of several factors on endophytic communities in these plantations. Endophyte assemblages were analysed in 12 poplar plantations (clone I-214), chosen according to a factorial scheme with two factors: age and site quality. Crown condition, dendrometric variables and foliar nutrients were recorded in each sampled tree to evaluate their effects on endophytic communities. Fungal species richness and relative isolation frequency (RIF) were higher in young stands than in adult stands. Moreover, the age-related differences depended on site quality, with the lowest richness levels observed in adult stands located in poor sites. At stand level, endophyte assemblages varied among stands according to site quality and, to a lesser extent, stand age. On the other hand, crown discoloration, total height and foliar concentrations of iron and zinc may be key indicators of endophytic communities in poplar plantations, at tree level.
  • Martín-García, Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute, University of Valladolid – INIA, Avenida de Madrid 57, 34004 Palencia, Spain, and Forestry Engineering, University of Extremadura, Plasencia, Spain E-mail: jorgemg@pvs.uva.es (email)
  • Espiga, Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute, University of Valladolid – INIA, Palencia, Spain E-mail: ee@nn.es
  • Pando, Statistics and Operations Research Department, University of Valladolid, Spain E-mail: vp@nn.es
  • Diez, Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute, University of Valladolid – INIA, Palencia, Spain E-mail: jjd@nn.es
article id 129, category Research article
Mikko Moilanen, Markku Saarinen, Klaus Silfverberg. (2010). Foliar nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium concentrations of Scots pine in drained mires in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 4 article id 129. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.129
Keywords: peatland; foliar analysis; drainage; site type; nutrient deficiency
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
An imbalanced nutrient status in Scots pine stands on drained mires is primarily a consequence of excess nitrogen (N) in relation to mineral nutrients such as phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). In this study, the variation of foliar N, P, and K concentrations relative to some site and environmental characteristics was examined. Foliar nutrient concentrations were determined on needle samples collected from mires representing different drainage ages, site types, geographical locations and annual weather conditions. In the overall data (n = 971 samples in 333 stands) the foliar N concentration varied between 6.7 and 24.2 mg g-1, the P concentration between 0.83 and 2.32 mg g-1, and the K concentration between 2.22 and 6.23 mg g-1. The original (pre-drainage) mire site type proved to be an important factor in explaining the nutrient status of the trees: on originally forested sites, the nutrient balance (N versus K; N versus P) was mostly adequate, whereas on sparsely forested and treeless sites, K deficiency was common. N deficiency was the most common in forested ‘nitrogen-poor’ sites, while P and K deficiencies were more common in originally treeless or sparsely forested ‘nitrogen rich’ sites, where the nutrient imbalance was also the greatest. Over the whole data, 29% of the cases were diagnosed to be N-deficient, 51% P-deficient, and 25% K-deficient. The foliar N concentration increased with increasing temperature sum. The foliar K concentration decreased with increasing depth of the peat layer. On former treeless or sparsely forested sites, foliar K decreased slightly with increasing drainage age. In contrast, on thin-peated sites the foliar P concentration increased with increasing drainage age. The climate conditions (location), the original site type of the mire and peat thickness should be taken into account when planning silvicultural measures on mires drained for forestry.
  • Moilanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Muhos and Parkano Research Units, Finland E-mail: mikko.moilanen@metla.fi (email)
  • Saarinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Muhos and Parkano Research Units, Finland E-mail: ms@nn.fi
  • Silfverberg, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Muhos and Parkano Research Units, Finland E-mail: ks@nn.fi
article id 207, category Research article
Mats T. Olsson, Maria Erlandsson, Lars Lundin, Torbjörn Nilsson, Åke Nilsson, Johan Stendahl. (2009). Organic carbon stocks in Swedish Podzol soils in relation to soil hydrology and other site characteristics. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 2 article id 207. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.207
Keywords: temperature sum; soil organic carbon; forest land; soil hydrological class; N deposition; latitude; site capacity; mean annual precipitation; altitude
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Site characteristics influence soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. In Podzols under Swedish forest land, SOC stocks were related to latitude, altitude, soil hydrological class categorized by mean groundwater level, mean annual precipitation, temperature sum during the growing season, total annual nitrogen (N) deposition and site capacity. SOC stocks were determined for the O-horizon and for total soil (O-horizon + mineral soil to a depth of 50 cm). Data from the Swedish National Forest Soil Inventory 1993–2001 were used (1477 field plots). The O-horizon was sampled with a core sampler and carbon (C) stocks were determined. For the mineral soil layers the SOC stock was calculated based on the SOC concentrations, bulk density and content of rock fragments. The results showed that the overall mean SOC stock was 2.8 and 8.2 kg C m–2 for O-horizon and total soil, respectively. Soil hydrological class strongly affected SOC stocks, which increased from on average 6.7 kg C m–2 at dry sites to 9.7 kg C m–2 at slightly moist sites. Corresponding values for the O-horizon were 2.0 to 4.4 kg C m–2. The correlation coefficients for the linear relationship between SOC stock and site characteristics were highest for N deposition, which explained up to 25% of variation, and latitude, which explained up to 20% of variation. Altitude had the lowest degree of explanation.
  • Olsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mto@nn.se
  • Erlandsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: me@nn.se
  • Lundin, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ll@nn.se
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: torbjorn.nilsson@mark.slu.se (email)
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: an@nn.se
  • Stendahl, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: js@nn.se
article id 252, category Research article
Tuomo Kalliokoski, Pekka Nygren, Risto Sievänen. (2008). Coarse root architecture of three boreal tree species growing in mixed stands. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 2 article id 252. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.252
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pendula; Picea abies; site type; branching pattern; influence area; developmental stage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Root system architecture determines many of the vital functions of a tree, e.g. stability of anchorage and resource uptake. The shoot:root ratio is determined through the allocation of resources. Studies on below-ground architectural elements in boreal mixed forests are relatively scarce despite the fact that knowledge on below-ground interactions and allocation changes in relation to stand developmental stage and soil fertility is needed both in ecological and silvicultural research. In this study, sixty tree root systems of three different tree species, Betula pendula, Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris, were excavated in five mixed forest stands in order to quantify differences between the species and sites in terms of rooting behaviour. Root architecture differed greatly between the species, implying different solutions for the functions of root systems. Half of the P. sylvestris had developed a taproot as a response to anchorage needs, while P. abies correspondingly had pronounced secondary growth of proximal roots. Betula pendula had the most extensive root system, illustrating the greater demand of deciduous trees for water. Betula pendula was also the most sensitive to soil fertility: it favoured exploration on the poorest site, as illustrated by the high total root length, whereas on the most fertile site its strategy was to efficiently exploit soil resources through increased branching intensity. The results obtained in this study provide basic knowledge on the architectural characteristics of boreal tree root systems for use by forestry professionals and modellers.
  • Kalliokoski, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tuomo.kalliokoski@metla.fi (email)
  • Nygren, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pn@nn.fi
  • Sievänen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: rs@nn.fi
article id 263, category Research article
Aksel Granhus, Dag Fjeld. (2008). Time consumption of planting after partial harvests. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 1 article id 263. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.263
Keywords: planting; work study; mechanical site preparation; partial cutting; scarification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Partial harvesting combined with underplanting may be a means to reduce the risk of regeneration failure when e.g. unfavourable microclimatic conditions or severe damage by bark-feeding insects may be expected after clear-cutting, and to maintain or establish certain stand structures or tree species mixture. In this study, we performed time studies of manual planting with and without prior site preparation (patch scarification, inverting) in partially harvested stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). The harvest treatments included basal area removals of approx. 35, 45, and 55%, and a patch clear-cut treatment that was assumed to provide the same conditions for planting as conventional clear-cutting. Site preparation had a much larger influence on time consumption plant–1 (main time) than the harvest treatment. The lowest time consumption was found with inverting and the highest without site preparation. The time spent on walking between planting spots increased with decreasing harvest intensity, reflecting a lower density of planted seedlings in the partially harvested stands. A corresponding increase in main time per plant only occurred after site preparation, since the time spent on clearing the planting spot (removal of logging residue and humus) on untreated plots was higher at the higher harvest strengths. The variation in time consumption attributed to the six replicate stands was large and mainly due to the difference among stands planted by different workers.
  • Granhus, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept. of Ecology and Natural Resource Management (INA), P.O.Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: aksel.granhus@umb.no (email)
  • Fjeld, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: df@nn.se
article id 307, category Research article
Jacqueline C. Bolli, Andreas Rigling, Harald Bugmann. (2007). The influence of changes in climate and land-use on regeneration dynamics of Norway spruce at the treeline in the Swiss Alps. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 1 article id 307. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.307
Keywords: tree growth; dendroecology; microsites; subalpine meadow succession; tree invasion
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Recent changes of climate and land-use are often regarded to affect the European Alpine region substantially and to trigger an increase in the elevation of the upper treeline. The patterns of tree invasion on a subalpine meadow at 1900 m a.s.l. in Sedrun, Canton Grisons, Switzerland, were studied in order 1) to reconstruct the process of tree establishment and tree–growth dynamics in space and time, and 2) to evaluate the influence of site properties, land-use change and climate on these processes. Dendroecological analysis of 105 Norway spruce combined with an assessment of 48 vegetation plots and 17 soil profiles revealed that the trees were established in one main period (1965–1980s), starting 15 years after the abandonment of the agricultural use of the meadow, and that there is a pronounced environmental gradient along the forest-meadow ecotone. Tree establishment and height growth were favoured close to the former forest edge, but all saplings irrespective of their distance to the forest edge and their age showed increased radial growth since 1990, coinciding with a period of higher summer temperatures in the region. Therefore, we conclude that the observed tree-line dynamics in Sedrun are the result of both land-use and climate change: Tree establishment was triggered by the abandonment of the agricultural use of the meadow, and strongly favoured by particularly good growing conditions in a warm decade, which illustrates the sensitivity of conifers near the alpine tree-line to temperature fluctuations.
  • Bolli, Swiss Federal Research Institute, Zürcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland E-mail: jacqueline.bolli@wsl.ch (email)
  • Rigling, Swiss Federal Research Institute, Zürcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland E-mail: ar@nn.ch
  • Bugmann, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zürich, Universitätstrasse 16, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland E-mail: hb@nn.ch
article id 319, category Research article
Ulises Diéguez-Aranda, José Antonio Grandas-Arias, Juan Gabriel Álvarez-González, Klaus von Gadow. (2006). Site quality curves for birch stands in north-western Spain. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 4 article id 319. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.319
Keywords: site quality; Betula pubescens; generalized algebraic difference approach; base-age invariant dynamic equation; Hossfeld model; Galicia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A model for predicting the height growth of even-aged, birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) dominated stands in Galicia (north-western Spain) was developed. Data from stem analysis of 214 trees were used for model construction. Two dynamic site equations derived with the generalized algebraic difference approach (GADA) were tested, which combine compatible site index and height models in one common equation. Both equations are base-age invariant and directly estimate height and site index from any height and age. The fittings were done in one stage using the base-age-invariant dummy variables method. A second-order continuous-time autoregressive error structure was used to correct the inherent autocorrelation of the longitudinal data used in this study. Cieszewski’s model best described the data. This model is therefore recommended for height growth prediction and site classification of birch stands in Galicia.
  • Diéguez-Aranda, Departamento de Ingeniería Agroforestal, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Escuela Politécnica Superior, Campus universitario, 27002 Lugo, Spain E-mail: udieguez@lugo.usc.es (email)
  • Grandas-Arias, Departamento de Ingeniería Agroforestal, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Escuela Politécnica Superior, Campus universitario, 27002 Lugo, Spain E-mail: jaga@nn.es
  • Álvarez-González, Departamento de Ingeniería Agroforestal, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Escuela Politécnica Superior, Campus universitario, 27002 Lugo, Spain E-mail: jgag@nn.es
  • Gadow, Institut fur Waldinventur und Waldwachstum, George-Auguts-Universität Göttingen. Büsgenweg 5, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: kg@nn.de
article id 352, category Research article
Juha-Pekka Hotanen, Matti Maltamo, Antti Reinikainen. (2006). Canopy stratification in peatland forests in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 1 article id 352. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.352
Keywords: succession; structural diversity; drainage; site type; canopy layer; crown coverage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Hotanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha-pekka.hotanen@metla.fi (email)
  • Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Reinikainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ar@nn.fi
article id 413, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Timo Penttilä. (2004). Inorganic and organic phosphorus fractions in peat from drained mires in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 3 article id 413. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.413
Keywords: tree growth; drained peatland forests; phosphorus availability; sequential fractionation; site type classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Soil samples from 15 eutrophic, 26 herb-rich, 15 tall-sedge, and 11 low-sedge drained peatland sites were analysed for easily soluble and aluminum, iron, and calcium bound phosphorus (P) using the Chang and Jackson sequential fractionation method. Compared to earlier investigations, where only total and easily soluble P contents (e.g. NH4OAc or dilute H2SO4 extractable P) in peat have been analysed, significantly higher differences between sites were observed. The eutrophic sites were characterized by four to six-fold greater Ca-bound organic P and two to three-fold greater Ca-bound inorganic P contents than on the other three site type groups, whereas the average Al-bound inorganic P content of the eutrophic sites was only one-third of that at the other site types. Substantial differences between sites were also observed for Fe-bound inorganic P, i.e. two to four-fold greater Fe-P contents were measured at the herb-rich sites compared with the other three site type groups. The stand volume growth in the 67 studied drained peatland sites correlated significantly with Al-bound organic P and Fe-bound inorganic and organic P. The study showed that a detailed fractionation and discrimination of different forms of soil P is important in increasing the understanding of the relationship between P availability and vegetation community types and stand growth on drained peatlands.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 437, category Research article
Raffaele Spinelli, Philip M. O. Owende, Shane M. Ward, Maximiano Tornero. (2004). Comparison of short-wood forwarding systems used in Iberia. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 1 article id 437. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.437
Keywords: Eucalyptus; forwarding; site disturbance; cut-to-length harvesting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Spinelli, CNR - Timber and Tree Institute, Via Madonna del Piano - Pal. F, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; University College Dublin, Ireland E-mail: spinelli@ivalsa.cnr.it (email)
  • Owende, Dept. of Agricultural and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland E-mail: pmoo@nn.ie
  • Ward, Dept. of Agricultural and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland E-mail: smw@nn.ie
  • Tornero, Servicios Forestales SA, Ctra. SE-184 Km 0.63, E-41970 Santiponce, Sevilla, Spain E-mail: mt@nn.es
article id 512, category Research article
Juha-Pekka Hotanen. (2003). Multidimensional site description of peatlands drained for forestry. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 512. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.512
Keywords: site index; vegetation; diversity; classification; macronutrients; ordination; peat properties
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Hotanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O.Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha-pekka.hotanen@metla.fi (email)
article id 509, category Research article
Michelle de Chantal, Laura Eskola, Hannu Ilvesniemi, Kari Leinonen, Carl Johan Westman. (2003). Early establishment of Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies sown on soil freshly prepared and after stabilisation. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 509. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.509
Keywords: Norway spruce; site preparation; Scots pine; direct seeding; soil properties
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The aim of this study is to investigate the early establishment of Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Norway spruce) seedlings on soil freshly prepared and soil left to stabilise for one year after preparation. Three site preparation treatments were studied: exposed C horizon, mound (broken O/E/B horizon piled upside down over undisturbed forest floor), and exposed E/B horizon. The years investigated were different in terms of weather, one being rainy and the other one dry. As such, emergence was very low in the dry year. Content of fine silt particles, bulk density, water retention, air-filled porosity, loss-on-ignition, and near saturated hydraulic conductivity did not differ statistically between fresh and stabilised soil. Nevertheless, early establishment of P. sylvestris seedlings was improved on exposed C and E/B horizon after one year of soil stabilisation. In contrast, early establishment of P. sylvestris on mounds, and that of P. abies on all types of site preparation treatments were not improved by soil stabilisation. In addition, mortality due to frost heaving did not differ significantly between freshly prepared and stabilised soil. Considering the fact that growing season climate had a great influence on the sowing outcome, and that early establishment is also affected by other factors that vary yearly, such as predation, seedbed receptivity, and competition from vegetation, it may not be advantageous to wait for soil to stabilise before regenerating from seeds.
  • Chantal, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: michelle.dechantal@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Eskola, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: le@nn.fi
  • Ilvesniemi, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hi@nn.fi
  • Leinonen, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kl@nn.fi
  • Westman, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: cjw@nn.fi
article id 521, category Research article
Gordon Nigh. (2002). Site index conversion equations for mixed trembling aspen and white spruce stands in northern British Columbia. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 4 article id 521. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.521
Keywords: site index; mixed species; trembling aspen; white spruce
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
White spruce and trembling aspen are two important commercial species in British Columbia. They often grow in association, particularly in the Boreal White and Black Spruce and Sub-Boreal Spruce biogeoclimatic zones. Site index conversion equations are useful for estimating the site index of one species from the site index of another species. This study fills a need for site index conversion equations for mixed spruce/aspen stands. Seventy 0.01 ha study plots were established in mixed spruce/aspen stands. One site tree of each species was selected from each plot. The height and breast height ages of the site trees were measured and the site index was estimated with these data. The correlation between the site index of spruce and aspen was 0.6. Geometric mean regression was used to estimate the parameters of a linear site index conversion equation. The analysis did not reveal any differences in the conversion equations across the three major biogeoclimatic units (BWBSmw1, BWBSmw2, and SBS) that were sampled. Therefore, only one conversion equation is required.
  • Nigh, Ministry of Forests, Research Branch, P.O. Box 9519, Stn. Prov. Govt., Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9C2 E-mail: gordon.nigh@gems2.gov.bc.ca (email)
article id 565, category Research article
Sybille Haeussler, Lorne Bedford, Alain Leduc, Yves Bergeron, J. Marty Kranabetter. (2002). Silvicultural disturbance severity and plant communities of the southern Canadian boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 565. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.565
Keywords: site preparation; species composition; species diversity; ecosystem integrity; degradation; biodiversity indicators; life history strategies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Boreal forest ecosystems are adapted to periodic disturbance, but there is widespread concern that conventional forest practises degrade plant communities. We examined vegetation diversity and composition after clearcut logging, mechanical and chemical site preparation in eight 5- to 12-yr old studies located in southern boreal forests of British Columbia and Quebec, Canada to find useful indicators for monitoring ecosystem integrity and to provide recommendations for the development and testing of new silvicultural approaches. Community-wide and species-specific responses were measured across gradients of disturbance severity and the results were explained in terms of the intermediate disturbance hypothesis and a simple regeneration model based on plant life history strategies. Species richness was 30 to 35% higher 5 to 8 years after clearcut logging than in old forest. Total and vascular species diversity generally peaked on moderately severe site treatments, while non-vascular diversity declined with increasing disturbance severity. On more-or-less mesic sites, there was little evidence of diversity loss within the range of conventional silvicultural disturbances; however, there were important changes in plant community composition. Removing soil organic layers caused a shift from residual and resprouting understory species to ruderal species regenerating from seeds and spores. Severe treatments dramatically increased non-native species invasion. Two important challenges for the proposed natural dynamics-based silviculture will be 1) to find ways of maintaining populations of sensitive non-vascular species and forest mycoheterotrophs, and 2) to create regeneration niches for disturbance-dependent indigenous plants without accelerating non-native species invasion.
  • Haeussler, C2 Site 81 RR#2 Monckton Rd., Smithers, B.C., Canada V0J 2N0 E-mail: skeena@bulkley.net (email)
  • Bedford, B.C. Ministry of Forests, P.O. Box 9513 Stn. Prov. Govt., Victoria, B.C., Canada, V8W 9C2 E-mail: lb@nn.ca
  • Leduc, Groupe de recherche en écologie forestière interuniversitaire, Université du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888, Succursale A, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H3C 3P8 E-mail: al@nn.ca
  • Bergeron, Groupe de recherche en écologie forestière interuniversitaire, Université du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888, Succursale A, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H3C 3P8 E-mail: yb@nn.ca
  • Kranabetter, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Bag 5000, Smithers, B.C., Canada, V0J 2N0 E-mail: jmk@nn.ca
article id 560, category Research article
Christopher P. Quine, Jonathan W. Humphrey, Karen Purdy, Duncan Ray. (2002). An approach to predicting the potential forest composition and disturbance regime for a highly modified landscape: a pilot study of Strathdon in the Scottish Highlands. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 560. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.560
Keywords: restoration; wind disturbance; site suitability; catchment planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The existing native forests of Scotland are fragmented and highly modified and none are ‘natural’. There is considerable interest in expanding the area of this oceanic boreal forest and restoring forest habitat networks to benefit biodiversity. However, unlike regions with substantial remaining natural forest, it is difficult to provide reference values for forest composition and structure using methods related to historical variability. An alternative approach is to combine models that predict woodland type from knowledge of site conditions, and disturbance regime from knowledge of the disturbance agents (particularly abiotic agents). The applicability of this approach was examined as part of a public participatory planning exercise in a highly managed landscape in Eastern Scotland. Models of site suitability (Ecological Site Classification) and wind disturbance (ForestGALES) were combined to determine potential woodland composition and structure, and derive options for native woodland expansion. The land use of the upper Strathdon catchment is currently dominated by agriculture and planted forests of non-native species, and only small fragments of semi-natural woodland remain (< 0.5% of the land area). Model results indicated that a very substantial proportion of the land area could support woodland (> 90%) but of a restricted range of native woodland types, with Scots pine communities predominant. Structural types likely to be present included wind-induced krummholz (treeline) forest, forest with frequent stand replacement by wind, and also a large area where gap phase (or some other disturbance) would predominate. The merits of the approach are discussed, together with the difficulties of validation, and the implications for the management of existing forests.
  • Quine, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: chris.quine@forestry.gsi.gov.uk (email)
  • Humphrey, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: jwh@nn.uk
  • Purdy, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: kp@nn.uk
  • Ray, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: dr@nn.uk
article id 663, category Research article
Lennart Moberg. (1999). Variation in knot size of Pinus sylvestris in two initial spacing trials. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 2 article id 663. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.663
Keywords: site quality; silviculture; stand density; azimuth; initial spacing; knot size; within-stand differentiation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The objective of this study was to investigate the variation in internal knot size of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stems sampled from mature permanent plots, and for which the silvicultural history was known. It was based on a sample of mature trees removed from two different spacing trials representing a moderate and high site index. Knot size was measured with non-destructive methods using a CT-scanner and digital image analysis. Initial spacing varied between 0.75 and 3 m on the high site-index trial and between 1.5 and 2.5 m on the moderate site-index trial. Wider initial spacing on the high site index resulted in larger knots near the base of the stem. However, due to successive thinnings which gradually equalised stand density among plots, the difference between most plots was less further up in the stems. The effect of silvicultural regime was much more limited on the lower site index. Within-stand differentiation resulted in a variation of tree diameter (DBH); larger trees had significantly larger knots. Furthermore, knots were larger towards south than towards north in both trials. These results illustrated that, by using non-destructive measurements on trees sampled from permanent research plots, it was possible to simultaneously study the variation of internal knot size at stand (such as site and silviculture effects), within-stand (such as relative tree size) and within-tree levels (such as height and azimuth). However, lack of replication prevented valid statistical inference as to stand-level effects.
  • Moberg, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Management and Products, P.O. Box 7060, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lennart.moberg@sh.slu.se (email)
article id 668, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Timo Penttilä. (1999). Modelling the dynamics of wood productivity on drained peatland sites in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 668. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.668
Keywords: forest drainage; stand development; autoregressive process; site productivity; structural equation models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The dynamics of wood productivity on drained peatland sites was analyzed from the covariance structure generated by stand yield data of repeatedly measured permanent sample plots in 81 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) or Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst. (L.)) stands with admixtures of birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.). The site production potential, considered a latent variable, was assumed to follow an autoregressive process over time elapsed since drainage. As a measure of the latent variable, a relative growth rate (RGR) index was determined for all stands at the time of drainage and at four successive measurement time points following drainage (on average 16, 23, 30, and 41 years). The index was calculated as the site index of an upland conifer stand with the ratio of periodic volume growth and standing volume and adjusted by changes in stand stocking and thinning. The observed covariance structure was described by fitting a structural equation model to the data of RGR indices. When only the post-drainage measurement times were included, a quasi-simplex model with equal error variances and equal structural parameters at different measurement times fit the data well indicating a permanent covariance structure among the different measurements. Including the measurement at the time of drainage resulted in a non-permanent structure. The stand parameters at the time of drainage were poorly correlated with post-drainage growth. A considerable increase in the wood productivity of the sites was observed, being greatest during twenty years after drainage and continuing up to 40 years since drainage. This was concluded to be due to changes in site properties rather than stand structure although the effects of the single factors could not be analytically separated from one another. Our modelling approach appeared to improve long-term site productivity estimates based merely on botanical site indices.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, PO Box 16, 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, PO Box 16, 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 683, category Research article
Anders Karlsson, Arne Albrektson, Anders Forsgren, Lennart Svensson. (1998). An analysis of successful natural regeneration of downy and silver birch on abandoned farmland in Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 3 article id 683. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.683
Keywords: Betula pendula; site preparation; Betula pubescens; afforestation; arable land; site conditions
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To improve our understanding of factors influencing the success of natural regeneration with downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) on abandoned farmlands, a survey was conducted to analyse the effects of site conditions and site preparation characteristics. The study was based on a sample plot inventory conducted in one northern and one southern district of Sweden, in which 29 successfully established, naturally regenerated stands, about to be cleaned or thinned, were assessed. Radical site preparation increased stand density and uniformity of established regeneration, and gave faster initial development, than establishment without site preparation on former leys or meadows. Large proportions of the total sample area were classified as moist, and soils consisting of sand–fine sand or peat were frequent. The frequency of birch stems was highest in mesic sites, and on soils consisting of sand, sand–fine sand or peat. Distances to seed-trees were generally shorter than 80 m, and downy birch was the dominant species in most stands.
  • Karlsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: anders.karlsson@ssko.slu.se (email)
  • Albrektson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: aa@nn.se
  • Forsgren, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: af@nn.se
  • Svensson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ls@nn.se

Category : Review article

article id 695, category Review article
Marja-Leena Päätalo. (1998). Factors influencing occurrence and impacts of fires in northern European forests. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 2 article id 695. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.695
Keywords: tree species; fire; climate; risk assessment; site
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The return interval and number of fires vary, depending on the geographical location in interaction with climate, topography and amount of fuel. During recent decades, in northern Europe the number and severity of fires have been insignificant compared with Mediterranean region, in which fire return intervals may be 15–35 years, compared to the average of 60–120 years for boreal forests. This is partly due to the efficient system of fire protection in northern Europe, but is mainly due to the less favourable climate for fire and the smaller human impact on ignition of forest fires. The consequences of fire are related to both site and stand characteristics, site being the most important factor controlling the stability of stands. Dry sites being more flammable and likely to ignite are associated with high risk of fire. In northern Europe, due to the interaction between species and site, the role of species difference in risk of fire damage is not clear. In southern Europe, fire risk cannot be explained by differences between tree species. There, other vegetation (shrubs, etc.) is of major importance for the risk of fire. Management of forests can, to some degree, alter the risk and the occurrence of fire. In northern Europe, logging may have compensated for fire occurrence by decreasing the amount of fuel. In addition, forest roads act as fire-breaks and facilitate fire-fighting. On the contrary, in southern Europe the risk of fire has been found to increase because the traditional forest uses and management have decreased, which increases the accumulation of fuel. However, it is not yet possible to quantify and compare the effect of management in absolute terms. Currently, some tools, such as fire-risk indices, remote sensing and GIS-based techniques, are available for prediction of fire risk in some areas. For example, fire-risk indices are most suitable for areas, like northern Europe, which have a low fire risk. In high-risk areas, such as southern Europe, more sophisticated techniques are needed for assessment of the risk. In the future, assuming global warming at northern latitudes (2 x CO2 climate), the risk of fire damage could also increase in northern Europe. Therefore, to allow the various locational and silvicultural factors to be assessed on the European level, an integrated risk model is needed.
  • Päätalo, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mlp@nn.fi (email)

Category : Research note

article id 7818, category Research note
Roberts Matisons, Guntars Šņepsts, Līga Puriņa, Jānis Donis, Āris Jansons. (2018). Dominant height growth of European beech at the northeasternmost stands in Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 7818. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7818
Keywords: site index; Fagus sylvatica; generalized algebraic difference approach; height models
Highlights: The dominant height growth of the introduced European beech was modelled using the generalised algebraic difference approach; The Chapman-Richards and Sloboda models showed the best fit to the data; Height growth of the second generation trees exceeded the first generation trees; In the western part of Latvia, height growth of beech exceeded that in southern Sweden.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The height growth of trees influences the productivity of stands and the competitiveness of species, shaping the range of their distribution. Dominant height growth was assessed for European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), growing outside of its natural distribution range in the western part of Latvia. In 10 neighbouring experimental stands, 20 dominant trees were felled for stem analysis. Height growth was modelled using the generalised algebraic difference approach, applying several non-linear equations and mixed procedures. The Chapman-Richards and Sloboda models showed the best fit to the data. Height growth of the second generation (younger) trees exceeded that of the first generation, and followed curve for a higher site index, suggesting sufficient adaptation and improving conditions. Height growth of the studied beech exceeded predictions for beech in southern Sweden, which is considered to be the northern limit of the species range, yet the growth pattern differed. In Latvia, slower height growth was estimated for site indices < 32 m (in 100 years) during the first 60 years, yet larger maximal height was predicted, suggesting a longer establishment period. Nevertheless, the improving height growth indicated increasing potential for the application of the species in commercial forestry, and an expansion of the species within the region even during the 21th century.

  • Matisons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rīgas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: robism@inbox.lv (email)
  • Šņepsts, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rīgas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: guntars.snepsts@silava.lv
  • Puriņa, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rīgas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: liga.purina@silava.lv
  • Donis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rīgas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: janis.donis@silava.lv
  • Jansons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rīgas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: aris.jansons@silava.lv
article id 1136, category Research note
Håkan Lideskog, Back Tomas Ersson, Urban Bergsten, Magnus Karlberg. (2014). Determining boreal clearcut object properties and characteristics for identification purposes. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1136. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1136
Keywords: forestry; forest regeneration; clearcut obstacles; terrain description; terrain conditions; site properties
Highlights: We define the quantitative properties and qualitative characteristics of stumps, stones, slash, and roots, the most important objects interacting with machine activities after clearcutting; We develop a flowchart showing how a computer-aided system using clearcut object identification should be executed.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
After clearcutting, machines traffic the clearcut conducting different silvicultural activities. Many objects on a forest clearcut (slash residues, stones, stumps and roots) may disturb e.g. site preparation and planting. This paper describes properties and characteristics of these objects. A flowchart was developed that describes a possible computer-aided system that identifies the objects, and ultimately, makes a machine avoid or target them. A system for obstacle identification creates conditions for further technical development and (semi)automation of e.g., site preparation, mechanized planting, and stump removal.
  • Lideskog, Division of Product and Production Development, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: hakan.lideskog@ltu.se (email)
  • Ersson, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SLU, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se
  • Bergsten, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SLU, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: urban.bergsten@slu.se
  • Karlberg, Division of Product and Production Development, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: magnus.karlberg@ltu.se
article id 915, category Research note
Kalle Kärhä. (2012). Comparison of two stump-lifting heads in final felling Norway spruce stand. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 4 article id 915. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.915
Keywords: productivity; Norway spruce; Picea abies; site preparation; stump harvesting; costs; stump lifting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The use of stump and root wood chips has increased very rapidly in the 21st century in Finland: in the year 2000, the total consumption of stump wood chips for energy generation was 10 GWh, while in 2010 it was approximately 2 TWh. Metsäteho Oy and TTS Research evaluated two stump-lifting devices for the lifting of Norway spruce (Picea abies) stumps. The productivity and costs of stump lifting were determined. There was one base machine with one operator in the time study. When lifting stumps with a diameter of 30 cm, the effective hour productivity of stump lifting was 11.2 m3 solid over bark (sob)/E0 (4.8 tonD/E0) without site preparation using a Väkevä Stump Processor, and when lifting spruce stumps with a diameter of 40 cm, the productivity was 14.9 m3 sob/E0 (6.5 tonD/E0). When the site preparation (mounding) was integrated into lifting work, the stump-lifting productivity decreased 21–27%. The stump-lifting productivity of the other lifting head (Järvinen) was lower than that of the Väkevä Stump Processor. Some development suggestions for the Järvinen lifting head were presented and discussed. The cost calculations showed that stump-lifting costs are extremely high when stump diameter is less than 20 cm. Therefore, the study recommended a change in the current stump-harvesting guidelines of Finland: The study suggested that all the stumps with a diameter less than 20 cm should be left on the harvesting site.
  • Kärhä, Stora Enso Wood Supply Finland, Talvikkitie 40 C, FI-01300 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: kalle.karha@storaenso.com (email)
article id 61, category Research note
Janine Schweier, Gero Becker. (2012). Harvesting of short rotation coppice – harvesting trials with a cut and storage system in Germany. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 2 article id 61. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.61
Keywords: productivity; harvest operations; marginal sites; SRC; Stemster MK III
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Short rotation coppice (SRC) harvesting techniques are available in Germany, but broad experience and knowledge about machine performance and the related effective costs of harvesting operations are still missing. This information is crucial, as harvesting costs strongly influence the economic performance of the overall supply chain. Therefore, it was the aim of this study to collect and analyze productivity data of different harvesting systems for SRC. The combined cut and chip system on the one hand and the cut and storage system on the other hand were studied by literature review. Several studies analyze the combined cut and chip systems and the reported machine productivities showed great variations. The average was 30 green tons per scheduled machine hour (gt smh–1). Few studies are analysing the cut and storage system. They report that machines still are under development and that further research is needed. Therefore, time studies of harvesting operations using the cut and storage system were carried out. Five trials were performed with the harvesting machine “Stemster MK III” developed by Nordic Biomass. The share of productive working time was 85% and the average productivity was 21 gt smh–1. These results were compared with values from the literature. Resulting harvesting costs were calculated per oven dry ton (euros odt–1). The advantages and disadvantages of both harvesting systems are highlighted.
  • Schweier, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Institute of Forest Utilisation and Work Science, Freiburg, Germany E-mail: janine.schweier@fobawi.uni-freiburg.de (email)
  • Becker, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Institute of Forest Utilisation and Work Science, Freiburg, Germany E-mail: gb@nn.de
article id 148, category Research note
Ola Lindroos, Magnus Matisons, Petter Johansson, Tomas Nordfjell. (2010). Productivity of a prototype truck-mounted logging residue bundler and a road-side bundling system. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 3 article id 148. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.148
Keywords: bioenergy; compaction; composite residue logs; densification; road-side landing; slash; supply chain
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
When recovering logging residues (LR) for bioenergy its density should be increased before road transport, otherwise a low proportion of the trucks’ load capacity will be used. One way this can be currently done is to compress LR into bundles that are forwarded to roadside landing. A less well-developed alternative is to forward loose LR and bundle it at landing. In the presented study, a prototype specifically developed for road-side bundling was found to produce larger, heavier bundles than bundling machinery intended for in-field use (mean length, diameter and raw bulk density 4.7 m, 0.8 m and 285 kg m–3, respectively, with 299–445 kg oven dry matter per bundle). The machine was also at least 30% more productive than previously described in-field bundling systems, producing 14–19 bundles per productive work hour (PWh), equivalent to 5.2–7.8 oven-dry tonnes PWh–1. Bundles were estimated to use 67–86% of an LR truck’s 30 tonnes load capacity, similar to proportions used when transporting loose LR. However, a continuous feeding and compressing process would probably almost double productivity, while longer bundles would enable full use of truck load capacity. With such improvements bundling at road-side could provide a viable alternative to current LR-recovering systems.
  • Lindroos, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ola.lindroos@srh.slu.se (email)
  • Matisons, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden E-mail: mm@nn.se
  • Johansson, Sveaskog Förvaltnings AB, Vindeln, Sweden E-mail: pj@nn.se
  • Nordfjell, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tn@nn.se

Category : Discussion article

article id 23053, category Discussion article
Back Tomas Ersson, Linnea Hansson, Jussi Manner, Per Sandström, Johan Sonesson. (2023). Forest management in northern Fennoscandia: the need for solutions that mitigate conflicts during forest regeneration and increase the use of continuous cover forestry. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 23053. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23053
Keywords: mechanical site preparation; reforestation; reindeer husbandry; indigenous rights; natural resources conflict; Sámi; Sápmi
Highlights: In Sápmi, increased use of continuous cover forestry (CCF) can reduce the frequent conflicts between forest industry and reindeer herding communities; Nordic forestry needs to develop new technical solutions for gentle and lichen-adapted mechanical site preparation during CCF in Sápmi; Such site preparation technology will promote pioneer tree species’ germination and growth, and increase the forest industry’s acceptance of CCF.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Today, conflicts often occur in northern Fennoscandia (also known as Sápmi) between forestry and reindeer husbandry. Continuous cover forestry (CCF) is requested by both reindeer herding communities and the general public and is becoming more common, but the forest industry criticizes CCF for lower wood production. Mechanical site preparation (MSP) increases regeneration success and, thus, increases wood production in CCF. To reduce the conflict between forestry and reindeer husbandry, MSP in Sápmi should destroy as little ground lichen as possible. Today, there are no solutions for gentle and lichen-adapted MSP in CCF. Thus, there is a strong need to develop and test new technical solutions that increase regeneration success in a lichen-adapted way during CCF in Sápmi. We suggest that MSP solutions be developed which are gentle, work selectively and function in shelterwoods, gap cuts, and selection cutting stands. We envision that these solutions could fill the gap between the desired adaptivity on the part of the reindeer herding communities and the desired efficiency on the part of the forest industry. Such MSP technology would contribute to increased acceptance of CCF in the forest industry, higher biodiversity, and considerably reduce the conflict between forestry and reindeer herding communities.
  • Ersson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), School of Forest Management, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2442-7482 E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se (email)
  • Hansson, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9788-1734 E-mail: linnea.hansson@skogforsk.se
  • Manner, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4982-3855 E-mail: jussi.manner@skogforsk.se
  • Sandström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0977-0071 E-mail: per.sandstrom@slu.se
  • Sonesson, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2018-7496 E-mail: johan.sonesson@skogforsk.se

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